Five Functions of Management: Advantages and Disadvantages

Five Functions of Management: Advantages and Disadvantages Henri Fayol is widely acknowledged as the earliest pioneer and advocate of the task of management Parker and Ritson, 2005 His management theories were first proposed in the early 1900s. Despite many criticisms, Fayols theories still form the basis of management practices and teachings in the 21st century. Taking some articles for reference, this essay will mainly analyse the advantages and disadvantages of Fayols concept of five functions of management in modern enterprises by some examples. There are about three main parts in this essay beginning with the introduction. And in the main body of this article, based on some academic researches, there are about seven parts discussing the advantages and disadvantages of Fayols concept of five functions of management. A conclusion will be made at last. There is no doubt that Fayol is best known for a three-fold contribution to management theory. Among his contributions, the concept of five functions of management is worth discussing all the time. Fayol identified five key functions of management and these functions of managerial activity are: forecasting and planning, organizing, coordination, command and control. According to Fayol, forecasting involves analyzing the future and drawing a plan of action (Pugh ad Hichson, 2007). And as for organizing, Fayol believed that an organizations structure was important, as it can facilitate the optimum conduct of its business activities (Pugh and Hichson, 2007). According to Pugh and Hichson (2007), in his original writing, Fayol used the term command to illustrate a managers responsibility to lead and direct employees towards the achievement of organizational goals and strategies. About the function of coordination, Fayol made a suggestion that managers should bind together, unify and harm onize all the organizations activities and efforts. In contemporary management practice, this can be explained into that the managers should be responsible for making sure that all the organizational business activities are coordinated to make the employees can unify together within one department or among different departments. The last not the least function of management is control. Fayol recognized the importance of control within an organization and support that it ensures everything occurs in conformity with established rules and expressed command. In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, McLean (2011) firstly introduced the contents of the five functions of management and stated that in contemporary society, there are some advantages of these functions to development of the enterprises. First, McLean (2011) stated that with the development of globalized knowledge economy, the abilities of forecasting and planning can gain success in the competition. Second, organizing can ask the managers to carry out an appropriate infrastructure, which will optimize the organizations system, resources, procedures, processes and services and enable knowledge to be disseminated to those who need it, when they need it. Third, McLean (2011) also stated that control is one of the most important responsibilities of a manager and under the control of the managers. Under control of the managers, the policies and strategies can be implemented according to plan and within budget, set timescales and allocated resources. Fourth, under the func tion of command, the managers can develop a thorough knowledge of their employees, which can generate a positive psychological contract that engages employees with their jobs and the organization. Whats more, Fayols managerial functions are frequently cited as the inspiration for the contemporary practice of dividing managerial activity (and management textbooks) into the functions of planning, leading, organizing and controlling (Davidson and Griffin, 2000; Lewis, Goodmand and Fandt ,1995). As for the organizing, Fayol believed that an organizations structure was important, as it facilitated the optimum conduct of its business. Whether there are advantages of this concept or not remains an open question, In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, Miss Jacqueline McLean stated that in contemporary society, organizing can ask the managers to carry out an appropriate infrastructure, which will optimise the organizations system, resources, procedures, processes and services and enable knowledge to be disseminated to those who need it, when they need it. Meanwhile, organizing also can integrate all kinds of resources of the companies, including human resources, financial and material resources. So there are some advantages about the concept. And this concept is also influencing the structure of the companies and most of organizations pay more attention to the building of the organizational structure. The KFCà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’one of the most famous and important fast food chain restaurants, is always paying its attention to the building of the structure all the time. In 2004, with the AIV spreading quickly in Asia, most of the KFC consumers quitted the line of waiting for KFC, never eating chicken. Especially in Vietnam, the most AIV-hit country, KFC business was confronted with a crisis. But KFC then changed its organizational structure, replacing the Fried Chicken with Fried Fish. So, finally it regained a big success. Under the guidance of Fayols concept about the organizing, many organizations know about the importance of the structure and pay attention to building their organizational chart and thus gain success. In fact, the building of the organizational structure should fit the development of the organization. As the saying goes, preparedness ensures success and unpreparedness spells failure. So does the development of one organization. According to Fayol, forecasting involves analysis of the future and drawing up a plan of action. About this Fayols concept, some authors viewed that there are some advantages. In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, McLean (2011) stated that with the development of globalized knowledge economy, the abilities of forecasting and planning can gain success in the competition. In the article of The foundation of Henri Fayols administrative theory, Mr. Wren, Mr. Bedeeian and Mr. Breeze stated that the most important of the means which one must use to ensure business success was planning. To create a business, the founders need capital manpower and time and should have outlets for the products or service. To forecast these needs and providing for them is the main responsible of the managers. So Fayols concept about planning has its own advantages. And i t also improves the development of the companies in contemporary times. Due to the loss of electronic mail, Morgan Stanley paid out more than billions of dollars. But this event is just one tip of the iceberg of the suffering a great number of cost which is caused by the inappropriate information management. Confronted with this problem, British Airway made plan and forecasting and declared its commercial goal: to automate more and more function and try their best to develop customers self-help service system , such as electronic ticket, and even that customers can printed their tickets in their own home. This strategy made British Airway protocol the development lifeline of the companies designedly. Although there are lots of advantages of Fayols concept of the five functions of management, there are some disadvantages of them. As for the forecasting and planning, if a business made a good planning, it will get a great success. If not, there will be a big failure, just as the saying goes Changes always go beyond plans. As McLean (2011) stated in the article of Fayol-standing the test of time that the globalised knowledge economy and the presence of ubiquitous change and competition make forecasting, planning and strategising key managerial activities, forecasting and planning are at the same time the main cause of an organization failure. HP, a big technological products supplier of the world, is always encouraging its employees to go forward to their goals, which are planned by the organization. According to HP official Website, in 2010à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’in accordance with its plan, HP purchased Palm company with the Web-based Operating System to get itself to a higher level. But as a result, the new product with the WebOS could not compete with ipad and was not popular with the consumers. In 2011, HP declared to cease the research of WebOS. So to purchase Palm with a whole $1.2 Billion is really not a wise choice. Many other organizations in the world are also always following the rules of forecasting and planning concept in Fayols management theory, but only a good plan is far from enough in contemporary competitive context. The other disadvantage comes from the function of command and control in Fayols theory. According to Wren, Bedeian and Breeze (2002), the command made by the higher authority and which, be it direct or through successive levels in the organization, should reach all parts of the organization, and the responses should return in the reverse sense, either directly or through the levels, to the central authority. Thus an organization can operate smoothly. But there are also counterviews, who consider that the excessive command and control will harm personal satisfaction and their self-respect. In the article of Fayols 14 principles of management then and now: a framework for managing todays organizations, Rodrigues stated that if the managers can separate their managerial work from the actual work clearly, they can have energy to focus on the target of the development of their own enterprises and deal with the public relations outside the companies. In the article Henri Fayol as strategie s: a nineteenth century corporate turnaround, Wren stated that due to the hierarchy, the managers can conduct the enterprise toward its objective. The branches of Nokia in China adhere to the principle of the former, the strict command and control. Under this circumstance, the managers cannot handle the managerial work since they have to help employees to deal with lots of trivial problems. After discussion, they changed the operation strategies and set up the system of hierarchical transmission of orders, in which the employees in the lower class should report their work to his/her own managers. Whats more, as McLean (2011) stated, although Fayol had a great contribution to management theory, he has been accused of the romanticism of management and presented an almost unrealizable approach to management theorisation. He gave a clear definition to each of the functions of his management theory and some principles to carry out them, but in concrete circumstances, some of them can not be realized. As Pryor and Taneja (2010) stated that in practically Mintzberg vehemently disagreed when he went on to say that if you observe managers at work you will find what they do is quite different. According to Lamond, Fayol gave us management as we would like it to be and Mintzberg gave us management as it is (Pryor and Taneja, 2010). Therefore, today many managers favour the important role of practice and experience. They think that practice and experience are the only way to get a management qualification. In conclusion, Henri Fayol, as a founding father of what has become known as the administration school of management, made some contributions to the management theories. This essay mainly aimed to discuss some statement about Henri Fayols contributions to management today and criticism of any of his contributions under the topic of Discussion on Advantages and Disadvantages of Fayols Concept of Five Functions of Management in Modern Enterprises and then to learn about the influence of Fayols management theories to the management practices and teachings in the 21st century. It focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of forecasting and planning, the disadvantages of excessive command and control and the impracticability of the theory in the main body by taking some articles for reference. All in all, Fayols theories are valuable and relevant for organizational leaders on the one hand and debatable on the other hand.

Case Study Crescent Pure Essay

Due to Crescent being Portland Drake Beverages’ (PDB) first entry into the U.S. sport/energy beverage market, there are some issues that PDB should consider with regard to Crescent’s impending launch. These issues consist of determining what customers want, being discussion-worthy and being transparent. Before launching Crescent it is essential to make sure that there is a place for Crescent in the market. Sarah Ryan, Vice President of Marketing for PDB, is doing this by trying to specify whether Crescent fits in the market better as an energy drink, a sport drink or a healthy organic beverage. Being discussion-worthy is another important issue to consider because it is important to make sure Crescent’s product stands out against the various other energy/sport beverage companies that are coming out with their own products. By captivating your consumers with something discussion-worthy, you’ll foster organic word-of-mouth about your brand. Being transparent is also a vital issue to consider because consumers have so many options on where to spend their money for sport/energy drinks. By being transparent and showing consumers exactly where their money is going, Crescent’s product will attract consumers. Letting consumers know where Crescent’s products are coming from and why they are priced they way they are gives power to the consumer, and helps them feel confident about their purchases. The factors that should influence the position of Crescent are competitors, market segmentation and market size. The market segmentation for sport drinks and energy drinks are distinguished through levels of hydration provided, energy provided, nutrition provided and favorable taste provided. Most energy drinks have higher energy, lower nutrition, lower hydration and  lower favorable taste compared to sports drinks. Additionally, the largest group of energy drink consumers were males between the ages of 18-34. Also parents of children were more likely to consume energy drinks and the highest volume of drinks consumed was by respondents with a household income below $25,000 per year. For sport drinks, roughly half of men consumed them, while only a third of women did. Furthermore, although 40% of men found sports drinks refreshing, only 27% of females did. Sports drinks appealed to younger consumers, 62% of those between the ages of 18 to 24. Crescent’s best target is males a nd females between the ages of 18-35. PDB must decide whether or not to position Crescent as an energy drink, a sport drink, or a healthy organic beverage. The advantages for positioning Crescent as an energy drink is that the market size for energy drinks has grown 40% between 2010 and 2012. Energy drinks were estimated to be $8.5 billion in the United States in 2013; forecasts projected that figure to reach $13.5 billion by 2015. Another advantage is that Crescent is a beverage that consists of organic ingredients that are a healthier option than most energy drinks. This is an advantage because sales of energy drinks with lower levels of caffeine and purer ingredients are rising due to consumer demand for healthier food and beverage choices. A disadvantage for positioning Crescent as an energy drink is that many potential consumers view energy drinks as unhealthy and might not see past that when PDB launches their new Crescent energy drink. Due to news stories highlighting the alleged health risks from energy drinks, 32% of consumers over 18 indicated they drank an energy drink in the last six months, 11% of who were drinking fewer energy drinks than they had a year earlier. The advantages of positioning Crescent as a sport drink is that the market size is also increasing. The market increased 9% between 2007 and 2012. In 2012, sports drinks reached $6.3 billion in the United States and are expected to grow to $9.58 billion by 2017. Another advantage of positioning Crescent as a sports drink is that diet and low-sugar beverages, which did not exist before 2009, had grown by 33% between 2010 and 2012. The market size for diet and low-sugar sports drinks is expected to increase from $1.4 billion in 2012 to $2.97 billion in 2017. This is perfect for PDB because  the Crescent beverage is based on being a diet, low-sugar, and overall healthy option. The disadvantage of PDB positioning Crescent as a sports drink is the concern regarding rising childhood obesity rates resulting in government-mandated guidelines to remove high-calorie sugary drinks and snacks, including sports drinks, from school vending machines. This could be a negative impact on the amount of sports drinks young consumers buy, who make up a large portion of the sports drinks that are consumed. The advantages of positioning Crescent as a healthy organic beverage is due to consumers currently moving towards healthier food and beverage options, as mentioned earlier. It is a market that is currently growing and will continue to grow. The disadvantage of positioning Crescent as a healthy organic beverage is that it lacks the energy that is provided by other energy drinks due to its use of organic ingredients. A focus group feedback found that some young consumers noted that Crescent had less energy than they had hoped. The positioning strategy that I would select would be a healthy organic beverage. It is important to find what draws you apart from the competition and then advertise based on that. The target market that Crescent wants to attract are people who are health conscious and consumers who buy sugary energy and sport drinks aren’t going to be as health conscious. Other implications that this will have for other elements of the marketing mix is that PDB could potentially raise the price for a Crescent beverage because some consumers from the focus group questioned PDB’s ability to deliver quality organic ingredients at $2.75, when most healthy organic beverages are above $3.00. Another implication this will have for other elements of the marketing mix is where this product is going to be sold. If Crescent is being sold as a healthy organic beverage then it must be sold in a store that sells other healthy and organic products in order to provide for the right target market. Lastly, Crescent will have to be advertised as a healthy organic beverage through packaging, commercials and other forms of advertisement showing that this product is healthy and only organic ingredients are used to make it.

Niccolo Machiavelli s The Prince - 1063 Words

Niccolà ² Machiavelli â€Å"The Prince†. Using bad or immoral methods to achieve something good by using them. At least once in everyone’s life, at one point they’ve made a dishonest decision. Some of us have even tried to explain our actions by bending the truth. Being dishonest is not the best, but at times it is the best answer. It may not seem to be the faithful thing to do, but the outcome will always be judged as honorable. It doesn’t matter how people reach what they want as long as the outcome is what they had hoped. The end goal doesn’t necessarily have to be good and noble. It is acceptable to go to any extent to obtain something that is for a good cause. Many people believe â€Å"the end justifies the means† is not valid unless the intentions are good and noble but sometimes people need to do something unacceptable in order to end up with a positive outcome. For example, let’s say there’s a family of four who lives out in the streets and don’t have anywhere to go. The children are dying of hunger and the family does not have a single dime to buy something to eat. The father then decides to steal something from the market to feed his children. What the father did wasn’t necessarily correct, but was necessary in order to meet his family’s needs. The father did something that is deemed wrong in our society but had a positive outcome not just for himself but for his family. Some might say the man’s actions were justified by pointing out the positive outcome. Now suppose theShow MoreRelatedNiccolo Machiavelli s The Prince1719 Words   |  7 PagesMachiavelli’s, The Prince, a book wr itten by Niccolà ² Machiavelli, is a read that most people wouldn’t prefer to read as a first option but in defense to Niccolo, it brings out many themes such as Goodwill and Hatred, Free will, and Human Nature. â€Å"It is known from his personal correspondence that The Prince was written during 1513, the year after the Medici took control of Florence, and a few months after Machiavelli s arrest, torture, and banishment by the Medici regime† (Bio.com). The novel wasRead MoreNiccolo Machiavelli s The Prince892 Words   |  4 PagesNiccolà ² Machiavelli wrote The Prince with the sole purpose of impressing the Medici family and getting on the good side of the new ruler of Florence, Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici. By writing this â€Å"handbook to ruling,† Machiavelli hoped to sway the Medici to accept him as an ally and possible political advisor. 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Exploration Of Myself As A Learner - 2017 Words

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However, while I was still there, Strath Haven used the â€Å"Int egrated Math Program,† which purports to foster creative and critical thinking because it â€Å"calls on students to experiment with examples, look for and articulate patterns, and make, test, and prove conjectures† (IMP website). Instead, IMP made me feel lost, and I yearned for the example-based approach used by my middle school teachers. I was unsurprised when the test in Brain-Based Strategies identified me as a â€Å"strong left brain.† This definitely reminded me of my experiences with IMP because, according toShow MoreRelatedThe Learning Styles Of The Work Produced By Kolb, Peter Honey And Alan Mumford Developed And Identified Four864 Words   |  4 PagesAs humans, we differ in many ways and our personalities allow us to react and deal with situations as accordingly. 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The Philosophies of John Stuart Mill as a Guide for the...

The Philosophies of John Stuart Mill as a Guide for the World Dr. Pests comments: This students term paper is a model of how to apply the philosophical concepts of a previous century to our present society. She showed how the ideas of John Stuart Mill can be used by intelligent people to construct a society with more opportunities for women and to insure respect for intellectual freedom. As the world moves into the twenty-first century, it faces many problems. War, disease, over-population, and starvation are examples of problems that have yet to be solved. However, progress has been made in many areas that aid in the reduction of human misery. Diseases, through research and scientific study, are better understood—many that†¦show more content†¦If people around the world would adopt the philosophy of John Stuart Mill, the world might become a more intelligent, and therefore tolerant, place in which to live. 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Following the ideas of these philosophersRead MoreUtilitarianism And Immanuel Kant1213 Words   |  5 Pageswritings have influenced people all throughout the world. Centuries later, his works still form a major point of reference in studies carried out in the modern world. His writings have brought a new dimension in religion, law and history. Among his many works was the Metaphysics of Morals which is the subject of this paper. His view of morals is that our desires and emotions are categorically imperative, meaning that they are conscience driven. His philosophy is closely related to the golden rule whichRead MoreDeontology Theory : Ethics And Moral Reasoning1137 Words   |  5 Pagescomprehend towards others and how they comprehend toward us. Human activities normally depict one’s ethical nature, adhering to the moral values of the deontology theory. John Stuart Mill, states â€Å"that each individual got benefit only from the nobleness of others, with his own nobleness serving to reduce his own happiness.†(Mill, J. S. 2008) We have happiness and unhappiness that are developed as a consequence of an action; normally people judge their actions solely whether if it is considered rightRead MoreEssay on Kant Vs Mill on the Issue of Lying1764 Words   |  8 Pagesanswer this ethical question, two theorists will be presented for the con and pro side. For the con side, the deontologist Immanuel Kant will be presented with his theory that lying is prohibited under all circumstances, as for the pro side, John Stuart Mill will be presented for the utilitarian theory stating that whichever decision brings out the most happiness is the right decision. 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Role Theory Free Essays

string(138) " roles because they apply to a wide range of situations and because they tend to alter the meaning and taking up of other types of roles\." Understanding Intimate Partner Violence through Role Theory: A Concept Paper Introducing Role Theory Role theory is a sociological framework that has been used to explain sets of relational patterns between people across varying contexts. It seeks to explain one of the most important characteristics of human social behavior – the fact that how people act, behave and speak are not separate, unique, disconnected but rather, are reflective of certain patterns and arrangements that depend on the social context and the actors in these contexts (Mangus, 1957; Biddle, 1986). To illustrate, within the context of an intimate relationship such as marriage, violence between partners can be tied to the particular patterns and arrangements of acting, behaving and speaking between partners – such as earning money, rearing children, taking care of the home and initiating sexual relations. We will write a custom essay sample on Role Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although several versions of the theory have been explicated by scholars, there appears to be agreement that role theory is mainly about three interrelated concepts: (1) patterned and characteristic social behaviors, (2) parts or identities as assumed by social participants, and (3) scripts or expectations for behavior that are understood and followed by actors in a particular social context (Biddle, 1986). For instance, adopting a role theory perspective to understanding intimate partner violence necessitates looking at the patterned and characteristic social behaviors of intimate partners in a relationship, the parts or identities that each partner plays in the relationship, and the scripts or expectations that are interpreted and adhered to by the partners in a particular relational context, specifically in situations of violent encounters. Furthermore, the theory also allows for an understanding of the relationships among the individual, collective and structural levels of society (Turner, 2001), as it deals with the organization and connection of social behavior between the micro, macro and intermediate levels of society. Thus, within role theory, an analysis of intimate partner violence entails looking into the individual behaviors of partners in a violent relationship and tracing the linkages of these behaviors to the social structures that exist in a particular society. Defining Roles Central to role theory is the concept of role. Several definitions have been ascribed to the concept of role in the literature. On a general level, the concept of role includes a description of behaviors, characteristics, norms and values held by a person (Thomas Biddle, 1966). Another definition identifies role as a cluster of behaviors and attitudes that are understood as belonging together, such that a person is considered as acting consistently when enacting the various components of a single role and variably when he or she fails to do so (Turner, 2001). For instance, the traditional masculine role can be characterized as aggressive, ambitious, dominant, independent and persistent whereas the traditional feminine role can be illustrated as agreeable, courteous, sympathetic, trusting, understanding and warm (Ellington Marshall, 1997). As such, a partner who plays the masculine role must enact behaviors and attitudes that are typical of this role, such as being aggressive, dominant, independent and agentic. For this partner cast in the masculine role, to be passive, dependent and agreeable implies incompatibility with the traditional masculine role. Specifically, a role may refer to behavior that is expected of people who occupy particular social categories such as statuses (or positions) in both formal and informal systems (Montgomery, 1998 as cited in Lynch, 2007; Biddle Thomas, 1979 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Roles may also be reflective of the cultural values and norms in a particular society (Zurcher, 1983 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Roles may also be conceptualized as a resource that social actors try to utilize to achieve certain social goals (Callero, 1994). This assumption suggests two things: (1) that human agency is facilitated and expressed through the use of roles as resources, and (2) that roles are employed as tools in the establishment of social structures (Baker Faulkner, 1991 as cited in Callero, 1994). Most social roles exist in pairs or sets. Thus, roles can be conceptualized as related through distinctive role relationships (Mangus, 1957). As such, there could be no husband role without a wife role and no parent role without a child role. In the context of intimate violence, there exists the perpetrator-victim role set. As organized patterns of social behavior, roles are of several types (Mangus, 1957). Roles may be ascribed to the individual, imposed upon an individual or achieved by the individual (Mangus, 1957). Sex and gender roles are ascribed to or imposed upon an individual (Mangus, 1957). For instance, one has to assume the masculine role if one is male or the feminine role if one is born female. On the other hand, one’s roles in groups and occupational systems, such as leader, mediator or peacemaker, are achieved roles. Roles may also be understood as generic or specific. Some roles may be pervasive, persistent, generalized and highly important to a person’s life while other roles may be limited, subordinate, temporary, isolated and unimportant to a person’s life (Mangus, 1957). To illustrate, in a violent intimate relationship, the roles of perpetrator and victim may be the predominant configuration in the relationship. On the other hand, these roles may also be seen as isolated to particular relational contexts and thus understood as subordinate to other roles such as father, mother, breadwinner and caretaker. Roles may also be highly abstract or they may be concrete (Mangus, 1957). Abstract roles emerge from social systems of statuses and are expressed as generalized moral standards (Mangus, 1957). Examples of abstract roles are evident in universal expectations of honesty and justice. Status roles include rights and duties that emanate from a given position or office (Mangus, 1957). Illustrations of status roles can be seen in the entitlements and obligations that are given to persons of authority, such as managers, leaders or decision-makers. Turner (2001) also identified four broad types of roles: (1) basic roles, (2) position or status roles, (3) functional group roles, and (4) value roles. Basic roles refer to roles that are associated with gender, age and social class (Banton, 1965 as cited in Turner, 2001). These are considered basic roles because they apply to a wide range of situations and because they tend to alter the meaning and taking up of other types of roles. You read "Role Theory" in category "Papers" The second type of roles, position or status roles, correspond to positions in organizations or formally organized groups (Turner, 2001). Occupational and family roles may be regarded as examples of position or status roles. Functional group roles are the informal behavior patterns that arise spontaneously as persons take on situational identities during social interactions (Benne Sheats, 1948 as cited in Turner, 2001). Examples of functional group roles are mediator, coordinator, critic, counselor, leader and follower. Finally, value roles are similar to functional group roles in that both types of roles emerge spontaneously from the social interaction. However, value roles tend to be attached to very positively or negatively valued identities (Turner, 2001). In intimate relationships, examples of value roles can be the roles of hero, villain, saint, sinner, perpetrator or victim. After providing an overview of role theory and the concept of roles, we now turn to explain the two major approaches to understanding role theory. Two Main Approaches to Understanding Roles A review of the related literature identified two main approaches to understanding roles: (1) the traditional structural-functional approach and (2) the interactionist approach. In this section, we highlight the characteristics of each approach as well as provide an explanation of the major assumptions within each perspective. We also provide illustrations as to how each approach can help enlighten our understanding of intimate partner relationships. Finally, we discuss the limitations of each approach. Traditional Structural-Functional Approach The structural-functionalist tradition of role theory focuses on how roles, as fixed components of complex social structures, cultures or social systems, influence the behavior of people (Lynch, 2007). Two related strands of role theory are embedded within this approach – structural role theory and functional role theory. Structural role theory concentrates on social structures, which are understood as stable organizations of sets of persons (called â€Å"social positions† or â€Å"statuses†) who share the same patterned and characteristics behaviors (roles) that are in relation to others sets of persons in the structure (Biddle, 1986). This particular strand of traditional role theory refers to parts of organized groups as â€Å"status† and to the fixed behaviors expected of persons occupying a status as â€Å"roles† Stryker, 2001). Thus, roles may be conceptualized as the dynamic aspect of statuses or social positions, with roles corresponding to rights and duties attached to statuses or social positions (Stryker, 2001). Within this strand, roles are understood as existing prior to the social interaction of people who occupy the statuses or soci al positions, as roles originate from the accumulated experiences of past individuals who have previously occupied a status or social position (Stryker, 2001). The second strand of traditional role theory – functionalist role theory – highlights the characteristic behaviors of persons who occupy social positions within a stable social system (Biddle, 1986). Within this strand, roles are conceptualized as the shared and normative expectations that prescribe and explain these characteristic behaviors (Biddle, 1986). Functional role theorists view the enactment of roles as something that is learned through an understanding of social norms in a society as well as something that accomplishes certain functions in social systems (Biddle, 1986). Both structural and functional strands of the traditional approach to role theory emphasize social structures as antedating roles, such that roles are seen as imposed on the individual (Turner, 2001). Thus, within this approach, the roles of perpetrator and victim can be understood as emanating from social structures such as gender. For instance, the masculine role has often been identified with being the dominant partner, the primary breadwinner, the decision-maker and the enforcer of rules in the household. On the other hand, the feminine role has often been linked with being the subordinate partner, the caretaker of the home and the supporter of the husband and children. Such role configurations may put partner occupying the masculine role at an advantage while setting the partner playing the feminine role at a disadvantage, thus making them vulnerable to becoming perpetrators and victims of intimate violence (Mihalic Elliot, 1997). Furthermore, this approach also points to socialization as the process by which persons learn to take on and perform particular roles in society (Stryker, 2002). Thus, when persons in social relationships conform to the expectations that are attached to statuses and supported by social norms, they tend to gain approval from other people who occupy related statuses and adhere to similar norms; such approval then reinforces the learning and enactment of roles (Stryker, 2002). Research has shown that typical school practices tend to create children’s identities as boy and girls (Martin, 1998 as cited in Fox Murry, 2000). In particular, findings showed that teachers tend to treat boys’ voices as different from girls’ voices, such that the former were allowed to be louder and more as compared to the latter. Presumably, such gender role socialization contributes to the accrual of privileges to the masculine role and the corresponding accrual of disadvantages to the feminine role. In addition, both strands of the traditional structural-functional approach to role theory agree on the assumption that society, social systems and social structures shape individual behaviors (Brookes, Davidson, Daly Halcomb, 2007). Analysis within this approach also starts from an examination of the social structure (Biddle, 1986). As such, within this approach, an examination of intimate partner violence will proceed from an investigation of the social systems and social structures that influence violent behaviors between partners in an intimate relationship. Furthermore, such an analysis will look into the cultural norms and values that sustain the social systems and social structures implicated in the phenomenon of intimate partner violence. However, several limitations of this approach have been raised in the related literature. According to Lynch (2007), this approach paints roles as relatively inflexible structures that are difficult to combine. Furthermore, by focusing on social structures, the traditional approach to role theory fails to take into account the mental, experiential dimension of role enactment (Lynch, 2007), thus regarding persons as automatons who take on roles mechanically. As such, this approach tends to be limited in its view of intimate partner violence as mechanically carried out by individual persons according to their status or position in the social structure, without taking into account the variability and diversity of experiences related to this phenomenon. Also, as it has difficulty accounting for individual level negotiations where actors may switch or combine roles, this approach also treats the variability and flexibility of roles as problematic (Lynch, 2007). Thus, traditional role theory is unable to address issues elated with non-conformity, social change and social systems that are not well-formed (Biddle, 1986). For instance, given instances of intimate partner violence where both partners inflict violence upon one another, traditional role theory proves to be limited in its explanation of intimate violence as emanating from the social structure. Within this approach, role changes such as when the perpetrator becomes the victim and the victim becomes the perpetrator become problematic and difficult to explain. The traditional structural-functional approach to role theory has also been criticized as advancing a one-sided view of society, with its emphasis on consensus, cooperation and continuity in social life along with its seeming blindness to disagreement, conflict and change (Stryker, 2001). Finally, scholars have also criticized the traditional approach to role theory as rationalizing and reinforcing the existing social order (Stryker, 2001). Interactionist Approach The interactionist approach to role theory arose from the symbolic interactionism perspective in sociology and as such gives importance to the roles of individual actors, the development of roles through social interaction, and the processes through which social actors understand and interpret their own and other people’s behavior (Biddle, 1986). Thus, this approach focuses on how roles emerge in social interactions and how individuals are able to influence behavioral expectations through social negotiation (Lynch, 2007). Within this approach, a role is conceptualized as neither fixed nor prescribed, but rather, something that is continuously negotiated by persons in social interaction (Mead, 1934 as cited in Lynch, 2007; Blumer, 1969 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Using this approach to understand intimate partner violence therefore necessitates looking at how partners in a violent relationship interact with one another as well as how they, negotiate, take on, impose or reject specific roles. In contrast to the traditional approach to role theory which highlights social systems and social structures, the interactionist approach emphasizes social processes such as communication, interpretation and negotiation (Lynch, 2007). Theorizing within this approach assumes that the relationship between personal, behavioral and social variables is reciprocal (Plummer, 1991 as cited in Lynch, 2007). As such, the interactionist role theory approach to xamining intimate partner violence will tend to focus on how partners communicate, interpret and negotiate particular issues in their relationship. As opposed to the traditional approach to role theory that posits the unidirectional influence of social structure on individual action, the interactionist approach opens up the possibility that personal and behavioral variables may influence social structural variables. For interactionist theorists, social actors interpret and enact their own roles by imagining the roles of others actors in t he social interaction (Turner, 2001). Thus, far from being automatons who take on roles mechanically, people are viewed as interpreting, negotiating and shaping their own roles to be able to interact effectively with other people who take on related roles (Turner, 2001). In this approach, analysis starts from an examination of the patterns of social interactions among individuals and groups of individuals (Turner, 2001). As such, research on intimate partner violence using this approach will look at the interpretative, negotiated and dynamic nature of violent interactions between partners. Some challenges to the interactionist approach to role theory have also been raised. One of these challenges criticized the interactionist approach for failing to take into account the influence of social institutions and structural forces on the role enactment process (Lynch, 2007). Thus, little attention is given to the structural constraints that impinge on roles (Biddle, 1986). To illustrate, although intimate partner violence can be analyzed by studying the social interactions where violence occurs, it is also important to trace the occurrence of intimate violence to social structures that impose and influence the roles that people enact. In addition, as the interactionist approach tends to focus on specific instances of social interactions, interactionist theorists sometimes fail to discuss the contextual limits of their assumptions (Biddle, 1986). Also, while the approach acknowledges the reciprocal relationship between personal, behavioral and social variables, it still fails to explain how these relationships feedback and affect succeeding role enactments (Lynch, 2007). Summary of Limitations of Two Main Approaches to Role Theory In his work on proposing an integration between role theory and positioning theory, Henriksen (2008) cited important limitations of the two main approaches to role theory. These limitations represent a summary of the difficulties that are encountered when using the traditional structural-functional approach and the interactionist approach to understanding social phenomena such as intimate partner violence. On the one hand, the traditional structural-functional approach seems to ignore individual action and its influence on social structure (Henriksen, 2008). Furthermore, a structural-functional approach to role theory also appears to be limited in examining the finer grains of social interaction (Harre van Langenhove, 1999 as cited in Henriksen, 2008; Harre Moghaddam, 2003 as cited in Henriksen, 2008). On the other hand, the interactionist approach appears to focus on social interactions, without taking into account the influence of social structures on the patterning and stability of such interactions. The interactionist approach has also been criticized for its limited attention to the social span of social interaction (Henriksen, 2008). It is based on these limitations of role theory that we propose an integration of role theory with positioning theory, in view of providing a better understanding of intimate partner violence at the structural, interactional and discursive levels. References Biddle, B. J. (1986). Recent developments in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 12, 67-92. Brookes, K. , Davidson, P. M. , Daly, J. , Halcomb, E. J. (2007). Role theory: A framework to investigate the community nurse role in contemporary health care systems. Contemporary Nurse: A Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, 25 (1-2), 146-155. Callero, P. L. (1994). From role-playing to role-using: Understanding role as resource. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57 (3), 228-243. Ellington, J. E. Marshall, L. L. (1997). Gender role perceptions of women in abusive relationships. Sex Roles, 36 (5/6), 349-369. Fox, G. L. Murry, V. M. (2000). Gender and families: Feminist perspectives and family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1160-1172. Henriksen, T. D. (2008). Liquidating roles and crystallizing positioning: Investigating the road between positioning theory and role theory. In F. Moghaddam, R. Harre, and N. Lee (Eds. ), Global conflict resolution through positioning analysis (pp. 41-64). New York: Springer. Lynch, K. D. (2007). Modeling role enactment: Linking role theory and social cognition. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 37 (4), 379-399. Mangus, A. R. (1957). Role theory and marriage counseling. Social Forces, 35 (3), 200-209. Mihalic, S. W. Elliot, D. (1997). A social learning theory model of violence. Journal of Family Violence, 12 (1), 21-47. Stryker, S. (2001). Traditional symbolic interactionism, role theory and structural symbolic interactionism: The Road to Identity Theory. In J. H. Turner (ed. ), Handbook of Sociological Theory (pp. 211-230). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. Thomas, E. J. Biddle, B. J. (1966). Basic concepts for the variables of role phenomena. In B. J. Biddle E. J. Thomas (Eds. ), Role theory: concepts and research (pp. 51-65). New York: John Wiley Sons. Turner, R. H. (2001). Role theory. In J. H. Turner (ed. ), Handbook of Sociological Theory (pp. 233-254). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. How to cite Role Theory, Papers

Made of Semiconductors

Question: Discuss about the Made of Semiconductors ? Answer : Introduction Normal processors can generally perform operations on operands more efficiently as compared to main memories located within computers. However, this outcome does not mean that large capacity memories cannot perform operations in similar fashions as processors. In fact, memories (made of semiconductors) can perform at high speeds compared to normal processors, however, the cost implications for their performance is much too high hence the choice of processors. Moreover, for operand operations, main memories must be fitted with semiconductor components that work at high speeds which again increases the cost even further. Therefore, to bridge the gap between high-speed processors and main memories, a memory block(s) known as cache are fitted between the processors and the main memories (UMD, 2001). Cache memory is, therefore, a high-speed memory that bridges the gap developed between the variations in processor and main memory speeds. Furthermore, the same facility is used to store addresses that are frequently used by the main memory. In general, the overall idea behind cache memory is similar to that of virtual memories where some portions of the main memory (which acts at low speeds) are stored within a high-speed location (cache) in duplicate format. This outcome leads to an efficient system that will always pass memory requests to the cache memory before escalating them to the main memory (UMD, 2001). Consider an example where an application request a certain arithmetic operation, this request is first passed to the cache memory if the necessary operands and addresses are available the cache executes this operation. However, if it fails to respond, the operation is forwarded to the main memory (Dandamudi, 2003). Nevertheless, cache memories should never be confused with virtual memories as they have high speeds requirements as compared to virtual memories. However, they both depend on the correlation of address references which means their differences stem from implementation procedures. Cache Memorys Major Components Memory Components Cache memory avails frequently used data to the processors, this functionality is achieved through its building blocks that develop small memory sections known as the primary cache (Level 1 cache). Primary cache is built within the processor such as the central processing unit (CPU) having a small memory size typically within the range of 2 kilobytes to 64 kilobytes. In addition to the primary cache, the secondary cache (Level 2 cache) is then developed within a memory location located in close proximities to the CPU. On most occasions, the level 2 cache is hosted within a memory card but will have a direct connection to the processor. Furthermore, the use of level 2 cache is normally regulated by the L2 controller a specific circuit found on the motherboard of a computer. Moreover, its size (level 2 cache) will range between 256 KB to 2MB depending on the processor's size (Nicolast, 2011). In addition to these levels is the Level 3 cache that is typically used to improve the overall performance of level 1 and level 2 caches. In general, level 3 caches are specialised memory locations that are significantly slower to level 1 and 2 caches. However, as compared to other memory locations they are significantly faster, for instance, they are known to have double the speeds of random access memory (RAM). Moreover, most modern multi-processor computers will have L1 and L2 caches within each processor core but will have a common L3 cache shared amongst the processors. Furthermore, because its meant to improve operations, any instruction directed to it is automatically elevated to a higher tier i.e. L1 or L2 cache (Rouse, 2017). Fig: Three level cache configuration Specialised Cache Although level 3 cache can be defined as a specialised cache, other caches that perform other operations other than data and instruction cache exist and hold this name. TLB (Translation look side buffer) for instance records both virtual and physical addresses allowing for translation to take place. Moreover, other caches like the disk cache leverage on the functionalities of the RAM and flash memory to offer same services as data caching but at different locations. Cache organisation and Configurations Several methods can be used to store data within the cache memory, these methods govern the internal structure of the memory locations. Moreover, the processor uses these structures to reference the address of the main memory location of the data it wants to access. Therefore, a proper organisation is needed to find the appropriate location, a concept known as mapping. This concept must be implemented in the hardware components to facilitate improvements in the operating system. Three methods are commonly used: Direct mapping Similar to a table having many rows but with three columns, direct mapping assigns each block of data to a specific cache location. Fully associative mapping Unlike direct mapping where a block mapping is based on pre-defined cache locations, this method allows a block of data to be mapped to any given cache location. Set Associative mapping Commonly seen as a compromise between the previous two, this method allows a block to be mapped in a subset of cache locations. Discussion Cache Performance To outline a caches performance, several terms must be defined as their operations determine the functionality of the said system. One, we have the cache hit which is the actual data found in the cache itself. Secondly, we have cache miss which is any data other than that found in the cache memory. Moreover, when a processor loads any data from a given memory into the cache, a delay is exhibited i.e. the miss penalty. Now, a general approach to quantifying a caches performance is to calculate its access time, where this value is given as: Access time = Hit cost + Miss rate*Miss penalty Furthermore, since the initial definition of cache memory saw it as a component that bridges the speed between fast and slow memory locations, this estimation can translate into: Access time = Fast memory access time + miss rate*slow memory access time (UMD, 2001). During the design of cache memory a lot of emphases is placed on fast control as well as reducing the size of miss rate, this because the speed of the main memory is always expected to improve with time (i.e. with time and more operations the speed increases). Moreover, the miss rate, an important component of cache design can be classified into three major categories; conflict miss, capacity miss and compulsory miss. Compulsory misses are a mandatory requirement of cache memory as they occur when a new program/data is loaded into the cache for the first time. Capacity misses, on the other hand, occur when the size of the cache is less as compared to the size of the data regardless of the organisation or mapping used. Finally, conflict misses usually occur when the hashing functions (operation mechanisms) operate at a fast rate missing some data. From this definition, it pretty obvious to note the misses that can be easily eradicated thus improving the systems performance i.e. confli ct misses. This objective is achieved using proper hashing functions that match the system design catering for both the fast and slow memory locations (Silvano, 2014). Application of cache memory to achieve its overall goal In general, the overall objective of the cache memory is to improve a computers performance and having established how its performance is gauged its important to highlight how it actually achieves its goal. For a cache memory to improve a computers performance, it has two general objectives: To provide the user with an illusion of using a very large memory that is simultaneously very fast. Remember, a user will use a 1 terabyte hard disk at a very high speed, however, the actual memory location does not achieve these speeds on its own. To meet the first objective, it provides data to the processors at very high speeds which facilitate a faster frequency of operations. Now, these objectives are again achieved using the principle of locality of references where the cache continuously refers to used memory locations or data. Two variations of the principle exist; temporary locality where data and even instructions are used in loops if the reference to the memory element exists. Secondly, the spatial locality where a close address is used to refer to the actual memory location or element (Silvano, 2014). Future trends In the past several cache memory variations have existed, for instance in some inexpensive computers, the level 3 cache is eliminated and incorporated into other systems. However recent trends have seen a new solution being adopted, a solution that is set to be the future of cache memories. In essence, all the three levels of cache memory are being implemented in the processors which improve the performance. Therefore, in the future users will stop choosing computers based on the motherboard and bus architecture and instead focus on processors having the right cache integration (Rouse, 2017). Conclusion Cache memory is an integral part of a computer and without it, the speed gaps between the processors would be so high which would translate into poor performance. A processor is very fast, transferring and loading data at high speeds, however, the main memory is slow at meeting the same functions but an upside to it is that it has a large memory capacity. The cache acts as a liaison between the two enabling the end user to capitalise on the functionalities and benefits of the two components. References Dandamudi. S. (2003). Fundamentals of computer organization and design. Springer. Retrieved 28 March, 2017, from: https://service.scs.carleton.ca/sivarama/org_book/org_book_web/slides/chap_1_versions/ch17_1.pdf Nicolast. (2011). Main memory. Introduction to computer science course. Retrieved 28 March, 2017, from: https://www2.cs.ucy.ac.cy/~nicolast/courses/lectures/MainMemory.pdf Rouse. M. (2017). Cache memory. Tech target. Retrieved 28 March, 2017, from: https://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/cache-memory Silvano. C. (2014). Introduction to cache memories. Advanced computer architecture. Retrieved 28 March, 2017, from: https://home.deib.polimi.it/silvano/FilePDF/ARC-MULTIMEDIA/Lesson_8A_New_Cache_ENGLISH_V4_COMO.pdf UMD. (2011). Introduction to cache memory. Retrieved 28 March, 2017, from: https://www.cs.umd.edu/class/fall2001/cmsc411/proj01/cache/cache.pdf