Assess the different sources of the law in England and Wales. To what Essay - 7

Evaluate the various wellsprings of the law in England and Wales. Whatever degree have outer sources influenced its turn of events - Essay Example The open laws are utilized to authorize request among residents and the state while private laws are utilized to implement request among residents and association that fall in the private space. These two laws are additionally violated down into common law and criminal law (Goodchild, Embly and Slorach2013 P.34). As a sub part of Public law , criminal law involves laws which characterize what is satisfactory as fitting behavior and a negation of such laws is regarded an offense to the people influenced as well as to the general public overall. Common laws fall inside private laws and are utilized to understand debates which emerge in family matters in cases, for example, legacy or abusive behavior at home. They are likewise utilized in instances of probate and law just as agreements, carelessness and work. Precedent-based law can be characterized as legitimate point of reference that is made by makes a decision about sitting in a court. Precedent-based law is continually changing in light of the fact that the translation and information on lawful point of reference and use of good judgment in accordance with individual’s cases and accessible realities will undoubtedly change (Antoine 2008, P.4) Customary law can be followed back to three English crown courts of the twelfth and thirteenth hundreds of years (Wingfield 2009, P7). These courts were the Common supplications, the King’s Bench and the Exchequer. It was accepted in those occasions that the custom of the individuals was the law as specified by the Kings’ courts. Despite the fact that the choices depended on earlier legal declarations, in situations where there were resolutions specified to administer specific debates, legal translation of those rules were looked for so as to assess how the law would apply in such case situations. Judges in the courts are entrusted with making the basic laws by conveying composed decisions about the cases before them. The Magistrate courts or other lesser courts are anyway not permitted to make their own point of reference as this would prompt disarray in various districts of England and Wales (Antoine 2008,

Sexual Harassment, Arbitrators and Vacated Awards Essay

Lewd behavior, Arbitrators and Vacated Awards - Essay Example Such honors restoring the denounced are probably going to be cleared if an organization has an express inappropriate behavior strategy or based on lawful and social standards. In Stroehmann Bakeries, Inc. v. Neighborhood 7761, the charged was released by Stroehmann for abusing the standard precluding shameless lead after the representative of a client affirmed that he had contacted her bosom, propelled himself against her and offered explicitly unequivocal comments. The mediator decided that the organization's examination concerning this occurrence was lacking. The third Circuit Court emptied the honor, expressing that [t]here is a very much characterized and predominant open approach concerning inappropriate behavior in the work environment which can be learned by reference to law and legitimate point of reference. The court likewise called attention to that the assertion grant would have influenced the business' capacity to forestall sexual harassment2. In spite of the fact that the courts maintained end of work where inappropriate behavior was guaranteed, these choices don't expect bosses to end a charged harasser in all cases. The business must decide if the provocation happened and afterward its reaction must be determined to forestall further badgering, given the specific realities and conditions at that point. In the event that the end brings about a complaint, the mediator needs to decide if the end is upheld by admirable motivation. Some portion of these contemplations is to decide the help, assuming any, for a situation. The open arrangement exemption to authorization of work mediation grants emerges when an honor reestablishes a formerly released person. The typical standard for control and release in labor cases is worthwhile motivation, which doesn't have an exact significance and the mediator needs to choose a case to case premise. Along these lines, it appears to be improper for a court to put aside an arbitral choice reestablishing a grievant simply in light of the fact that it doesn't concur with the judge's appraisal that admirable motivation was deficient. Then again, the Supreme Court has perceived the open approach special case; consequently courts reserve a privilege to apply it under suitable conditions. Despite the fact that the Supreme Court has not determined with regards to what sort of grant disregards open strategy, it has said that open arrangement is to be found out by reference to laws and legitimate points of reference. Further, it has recognized that the open strategy exemptio n is tight and in this way for a request to be abandoned on these grounds, the honor must damage a particular law or court choice and the event of such an infringement is to be resolved distinctly by the courts. Obviously, judges have no autonomous powers past what the gatherings give on them through their agreements and the Courts by and large, have permitted referees to make critical inductions with respect to the conceivable future direct of grievants when they decide their honors. The court's appraisal of whether open arrangement was damaged by a discretion grant has now and again been founded on these derivations. The Labor law strategy favors questions going to discretion and the Collective Bargaining Agreement or CBAs typically approve referees to restore representatives. The courts, as a rule, have held that an open strategy impact happens just if positive law unequivocally forestalls restoration. In any case, the Supreme Cour

Alcohol in College Scotland and the US

Alcohol in College Scotland and the US What the Americans can teach the Scots about drinking In todays The Sunday Times, one of the United Kingdoms most respected newspapers, rising MIT sophomore Grace Kane 11, a native of Glasgow, Scotland, authors an article commenting on alcohol culture in the US and her homeland. The reason for the commentary is a proposal to clamp down on binge drinking in Scotland by people under the age of 21, though the legal drinking age is 18. You can read about it here, but the basic story is: Proposals to tackle Scotlands binge-drinking culture have been announced by the Scottish Government. The plan would see anyone under the age of 21 banned from buying alcohol in off-licences and set a minimum price at which a unit of alcohol can be sold. The consultation document also proposes ending some cheap drink promotions and making some retailers help pay for the consequences of alcohol abuse. Graces article is a great read, and not only because it is fun to see British terms like Freshers week. It is very interesting to see the American (and MIT) college social life from a different perspective. Check it out: From The Sunday Times June 22, 2008 What the Americans can teach the Scots about drinking Grace Kane 11 Freshers week means just one thing for most first-year students â€" a big, happy cloud of collective inebriation. I was one of those new students last September, but while my former school friends enjoyed discount vodka shots in the union bars of Britain, I was 2,000 miles away, building a robot. I was in the middle of “freshman orientation week” at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston, in a country where the legal drinking age is 21. It was a culture shock. How would a bunch of 18- and 19-year-olds â€" particularly MIT’s infamously geeky crop of scientists and engineers â€" socialise with strangers without the help of alcohol? I had visions of sober and awkward all-American activities. Although sober, orientation week was not awkward in the least. We went sailing, toured the city, took a trip to Cape Cod, ate our weight in free food and got to raid one of the labs to build submarine robots from spare parts. I had fun and made friends that will last through college. All without the help of so much as half a bottle of Bud. So I am not one of the young Scots protesting about “demonisation” in response to proposals to stop us binge-drinking. Under the plans, alcohol will no longer be sold to under-21s in off-licences and supermarkets. There have been warnings that the measure will be extended to pubs and clubs, as in the US, forcing us all to abstain or break the law. Ross Finnie, a Liberal Democrat MSP, has written to every student union in the land warning of dark, dry days ahead. The Tories have joined Finnie and the drinks industry in wailing disapproval. In my experience, however, raising the legal age to 21 has many merits. America isn’t filled with teetotal, bored young people. Its full of young people who have other things to do. I was sceptical at first and slightly disappointed to celebrate my 18th birthday last September with cake and soda. But as my first year passed, I noticed that I seemed to have more money than my friends back home, even though we were on the same tight budget. I also had more free time, even though I had more coursework. Young people in America play more sports than here, and not just the “jock” types. Everyone has a hobby or talent â€" from fairly typical ones such as sailing, theatre and music, to extremes like skydiving and fire-breathing. A few undergraduates I know have already started their own businesses. At MIT a great deal of energy goes into complex practical jokes, called hacks, such as putting a life-size fire engine on the main building’s famous dome. Too many students in Scotland, on the other hand, just go to the pub. It sounds like the old stereotype: American enthusiasm versus British apathy. But people in the US do seem to care more about life. Perhaps this is because they spend their free time doing stuff they love, rather than using it to forget about the rest of the week. Of course, young Americans break the law and drink underage. But it’s much harder than it is at home. Teenagers in Scotland can get hold of booze so long as they have a tall, stubbly 14-year-old friend with a vaguely convincing ID card. In Boston, you need to find someone over 21 to go to a liquor store and present a Massachusetts drivers’ licence. Given the general disapproval of underage drinking, not many adults will do this. In this climate, drinking is regarded more as an occasional treat. American students will go several weeks drink-free between dorm parties, or will store beer in their cube fridges for a particularly bad day. The longer I lived in Boston, the more I realised my attitudes towards alcohol were a bit odd. American students were aghast when I told what I thought were unremarkable stories of elbowing my way through walls of drunks in a Glasgow railway station on Saturday evenings. “But it wasn’t that bad,” I’d reassure my horrified audience. “Only a few people were vomiting in the street and most of them were still walking upright.” In America lots of people will announce, “I don’t drink”, with pride. This is not to say that everyone in the US approves of the legal drinking age. A minority favour liberalisation and argue that young people would drink more responsibly if it was out in the open. They point to cases such as that of Scott Krueger, an MIT student who died of alcohol poisoning weeks after arriving at college. Schools in America have poor alcohol-awareness education, with many teaching only abstinence. Some young people drink themselves to death through sheer ignorance as soon as they get their hands on spirits. Yet despite these isolated tragedies, Americans are generally more careful about where, when and how much they imbibe. Scots, and Britons generally, do themselves more damage despite having responsible drinking messages drilled into them at school. Eventually I curbed my frustration at having to walk past Boston’s Irish bars unable to go inside for a Guinness. I stopped envying pub-crawling friends back home and started to feel I had the better deal. It helps that drink here is more expensive. I can take a day trip to New York City for the price of a bottle of Jack Daniel’s â€" it’s a no-brainer as to how I’d rather spend my Sunday. I go to see bands completely sober and enjoy them all the more. I’ve picked up random skills, such as Chinese juggling and how to construct theatre sets. More importantly, I passed courses such as multivariable calculus and relativistic electromagnetism. I had, in retrospect, a much better first year than if I was freely allowed to drink. So I say to the under-21s in Scotland: don’t be too scared of a drinking ban, even one that goes “all the way”. You might save money, go to new places, find out what Sunday mornings look like. Or at least, get something more out of the next few years than a million drunken photos on Facebook and a slightly degraded liver. Grace Kane from Glasgow is studying mechanical and ocean engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The Article Being Poor, Black And Americ Impact Of...

Introduction The article Being Poor, Black and American: The Impact of Political, Economic, and Cultural Forces written by William Julius Wilson is about the struggles and inequalities African Americans living in poverty encounter. Wilson discussed political, economic and cultural forces that have an impact on American impoverished communities. The author suggested the natural disaster of Hurricane Katrina brought the media and world attention to poverty in the United States. Prior to Katrina, the author believes Americans did not focus or sympathize with poor communities. This unsympathetic attitude stems from the belief that people are poor because they did not work hard enough, or are not doing anything to get out of that situation. After Katrina, Americans started to notice and care about the impoverished communities because the hurricane was a natural disaster and out of their control. Overall, the author explains how politics, economics and cultures forced many families into poverty, and d iminishes the idea that people live in poverty because of their own shortcomings. Political Force The author explained how the government established policies and initiatives that created ghettos and suburbs. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) is a program that helped citizens become homeowners by lending loans. However, only certain neighborhoods qualified for those loans. Research and data were used to prove that certain areas were considered a loss of investment. The

Up in Arms About Kannada Essay Samples?

Up in Arms About Kannada Essay Samples? The Unexpected Truth About Kannada Essay Samples The relation between educational institutions and other institutions widens the reach of knowledge. Therapists and psychiatrists don't just want money. It is extremely important for me to obtain a superior education. The success of rural tourism totally is dependent upon the caliber of service supplied to the tourists. A continuum to gauge the relative relevance of the countryside to the use of tourism in rural areas is proposed to indicate the significance of the countryside to the objective of the trip and to tourist satisfaction. As it will produce employment in rural places and will assist the inflow of funds from rural areas to urban locations. The big challenges are the need to save the environment and natural resources and the demand for appropriate education. Even though the conclusion paragraph comes at the conclusion of your essay it shouldn't be regarded as an afterthought. Faulkner brings up the way the death of essay about friendshipEmily was so significant to the individuals of Jefferson, mainly due to the simple fact that she was one of the final pieces of genuine tradition'. This will also assist you in selecting the words to utilize in writing. Within this competitive worl d students have to face plenty of difficulties in receiving success for this excellent quality of academic assignments are rather important. I've read quite a few books. Even the most well-known examples need context. Cannot be utilized in conjunction with other promotional codes. Kannada Essay Samples for Dummies Browsing our essay writing samples can provide you a good idea whether the standard of our essays is the quality you're looking for. At times, the best method to learn and understand new information is by way of seeing and understanding work which is already completed. Before writing your precis, make sure that you own a glance over the original to be sure you haven't missed anything. Ultimately, designing the previous sentence in this way has the extra advantage of seamlessly moving the reader to the very first paragraph of the human body of the paper. It is recommended to provide designations of officials in place of names and titles. When you're writing, atte mpt to prevent employing the very same words and phrases over and over again. Don't use abbreviations or contractions. The end result was awfully the very same for a number of the teens. The reader announces he or she has this fear'' and you wish to keep reading to find out what that fear is. It is possible to get current Information from all around the world form the bus, train, and sometimes even airplane you're traveling on. Creates need for new developments which might not be in keeping with local location. The Tried and True Method for Kannada Essay Samples in Step by Step Detail In the 20th century there were a great deal of different wonderful advances in the growth of mast media. I think that one of the greatest Inventions that we've from the 20th century Is the web. The important problem in rural areas is that there's not much scope for working. The main advantage of mass media is it can be put to use as a tool for preaching reconciliation through reconciliation programs which reach a large number of people and thus powerful. Most importantly, mass media plays a vital part in cultural diversity by producing a cosmopolitan atmosphere. Focusing more on information literacy, the teacher will help in guiding students to spot and access necessary information. The Fundamentals of Kannada Essay Samples Revealed Creative Essay writing is currently recognized among the most useful activity for kids for their general personality development. It makes an extremely very good reading. Most job fields need a descent education. Among the very best of gifts you may give a kid is a love of reading and, obviously, a stock of good books. Kannada Essay Samples - Dead or Alive? 1 approach to consider the conclusion is, paradoxically, as a second introduction since it does actually contain several of the very same capabilities. It's on ly passing the time free of benefit. Since rural people don't have knowledge and expertise to involve hem in various activities. The procedure for article writing, when compared with writing different compositions can be complicated.

Mcdonald’s Business Ethics Free Essays

McDonald’s Ethics Or Lack of Ethics Dymirra G. Ambeau Test Drive College McDonald’s was founded in San Bernardino, CA in the year 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald. The two brothers sold their fast food restaurant to a milk shake salesman named Ray Kroc in the year of 1961. We will write a custom essay sample on Mcdonald’s Business Ethics or any similar topic only for you Order Now Kroc believed in conformity, uniformity and the ethic of mass production. Following the ethic of mass production Kroc began to use frozen beef patties and genetically-modified potatoes to ensure uniform taste. McDonald’s also pays minimum wage to their workers, who essentially do assembly line, factory-type work. If you were to reclassify the work they do to factory work that would â€Å"add about 3. 5 million manufacturing jobs to the U. S. economy, at a time when such jobs are rapidly being exported overseas. From a statistical point of view, it would make the U. S. seem like an industrial powerhouse once again, instead of an ageing superpower threatened by low-cost competitors† (Schlosser, 2004). Despite the objections of McDonald’s, the term â€Å"McJob† was added to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary in 2003. The word â€Å"McJob† means a low-paying job that requires little skill and provides little opportunity for advancement. McDonald’s is the world’s largest distributor of toys, which it includes with kids meals which were introduced in June 1979. It has been alleged that the use of popular toys encourages children to eat more McDonald’s food, thereby contributing to many children’s health problems, including a rise in obesity. Many parents weren’t happy and said that giving toys with children’s meals circumvents parental control and teaches children unhealthy eating habits. One mother sued McDonald’s and went on to say, â€Å"I object to the fact that McDonald’s is getting into my kids’ heads without my permission and actually changing what my kids want to eat†. McDonald’s now features fruits, salad, and healthier drinks but continues to give out toys. This was not the first time McDonald’s has been sued. McDonald’s has been sued multiple times for health related issues. They have also been fined twice for breaking child labor laws. In 2001 the company was fined 12,400 British Pounds Sterling by British magistrates for illegally employing and over-working child labor in one of its London restaurants. This is thought to be one of the largest fines imposed on a company for breaking laws relating to child working conditions. In April 2007 in Perth, Western Australia, McDonald’s pleaded guilty to five charges relating to the employment of children under the age of 15 in one of its outlets and was fined $8,000 AUD. Still, McDonald’s has a few good ethics. They own the Ronald McDonald House Charities, an organization that helps families with critically ill or injured children who must travel to fulfill their healthcare needs. They also host an annual event at McDonald’s called â€Å"McHappy Day† where a percentage of the day’s sales go to charities. McDonald’s also tries to help the environment by using biomass power plants to cut its waste and carbon footprint in half where biomass power plants are available. They’ve also reduced the amount of packing for their food by 46% since the year 1970. Overall, weight reductions in packaging and products, as well as the increased usage of bulk packaging ultimately decreased packaging by 24 million pounds annually. References http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Happy_Meal http://www. neumann. edu/academics/divisions/business/journal/review_08/gibison. pdf http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ray_Kroc#McDonald. 27s http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2010/dec/19/mcdonalds-happy-meals-sued-california http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/McDonald’s#Criticism How to cite Mcdonald’s Business Ethics, Essay examples

The Rise Of Ludwig Van Beethoven Into The Ranks Of Historys Greatest C

The rise of Ludwig van Beethoven into the ranks of history's greatest composers was parallelled by and in some ways a consequence of his own personal tragedy and despair. Beginning in the late 1790's, the increasing buzzing and humming in his ears sent Beethoven into a panic, searching for a cure from doctor to doctor. By October 1802 he had written the Heiligenstadt Testament confessing the certainty of his growing deafness, his consequent despair, and suicidal considerations. Yet, despite the personal tragedy caused by the "infirmity in the one sense which ought to be more perfect in [him] than in others, a sense which [he] once possessed in the highest perfection, a perfection such as few in [his] profession enjoy," it also served as a motivating force in that it challenged him to try and conquer the fate that was handed him. He would not surrender to that "jealous demon, my wretched health" before proving to himself and the world the extent of his skill. Thus, faced with such gre at impending loss, Beethoven, keeping faith in his art and ability, states in his Heiligenstadt Testament a promise of his greatness yet to be proven in the development of his heroic style. By about 1800, Beethoven was mastering the Viennese High-Classic style. Although the style had been first perfected by Mozart, Beethoven did extend it to some degree. He had unprecedently composed sonatas for the cello which in combination with the piano opened the era of the Classic-Romantic cello sonata. In addition, his sonatas for violin and piano became the cornerstone of the sonata duo repertory. His experimentation with additions to the standard forms likewise made it apparent that he had reached the limits of the high-Classic style. Having displayed the extended range of his piano writing he was also begining to forge a new voice for the violin. In 1800, Beethoven was additionally combining the sonata form with a full orchestra in his First Symphony, op. 2. In the arena of piano sonata, he had also gone beyond the three-movement design of Haydn and Mozart, applying sometimes the four-movement design reserved for symphonies and quartets through the addition of a minuet or sche rzo. Having confidently proven the high-Classic phase of his sonata development with the "Grande Sonate," op. 22, Beethoven moved on to the fantasy sonata to allow himself freer expression. By 1802, he had evidently succeeded in mastering the high-Classic style within each of its major instrumental genres-the piano trio, string trio, string quartet and quintet, Classic piano concerto, duo sonata, piano sonata, and symphony. Having reached the end of the great Vienese tradition, he was then faced with either the unchallenging repetition of the tired style or going beyond it to new creations. At about the same time that Beethoven had exhausted the potentials of the high-Classic style, his increasing deafness landed him in a major cycle of depression, from which was to emerge his heroic period as exemplified in Symphony No. 3, op. 55 ("Eroica"). In Beethoven's Heiligenstadt Testament of October 1802, he reveals his malaise that was sending him to the edge of despair. He speaks of suicide in the same breath as a reluctance to die, expressing his helplessness against the inevitability of death. Having searched vainly for a cure, he seems to have lost all hope-"As the leaves of autumn fall and are withered-so likewise has my hope been blighted-I leave here-almost as I came-even the high courage-which often inspired me in the beautiful days of summer-has disappeared." There is somewhat of a parallel between his personal and professional life. He is at a dead end on both cases. There seems to be no more that he can do with the high-Classic style; his deafness seems poised inevi tably to encumber and ultimately halt his musical career. However, despite it all, he reveals in the Testament a determination, though weak and exhausted, to carry on-"I would have ended my life-it was only my art that held me back. Ah, it seemed to me impossible to leave the world until I had brought forth all that I felt was within me. So I endured this wretched existence..." Realizing his own potential which he expressed earlier after the completion of

Description paper plaza de mayor in madrid spain essays

Description paper plaza de mayor in madrid spain essays I was wondering down the narrow maze of cobblestone streets in the beautiful city of Madrid. Every street lined with tall vibrant colored building with architecture that was breath deifying. With no destination in mind I found myself in the most enchanting place in Madrid the Plaza De Mayor. The Plaza looked like it was out of medieval movie where everything was perfect. Everyone had a smile, the weather without a cloud, and the band was incredible. You felt like you were at a medieval ball where all the uncertainties of the world were put on hold. There was the prettiest little girl with a big blue ribbon purposefully tied in here hair, and this petite royal blue dress on, that when her father swung her around in circles her dress seemed to puff out like a parachute. The thing that was most captivating about the two of them was their smiles that stretched from ear to ear and if their smiles did not have limits they seemed they could have gone on forever. People came to the plaza to relax and forget about all the irritation and frustration of life. It was a place to be content and that is why you saw everyone wearing that same spirited and joyful smile that the little girl and her father were wearing on their faces. Spirit and joy made the plaza light up in the most beautiful of colors. The most beautiful colors were painted on the north building of the plaza. A mural painted depicted the emotion and free loving spirits of the plaza. Brilliant colors ranged from a red that resembled blistering hot lava, to a purple which looked to be soft to touch, to a green from the fields of the countryside. More colors overflowed over the backdrop of the mural in a non-intentional pattern, which gave the mural a whimsical feel. The most engaging part of the mural was the unclothed people with animal bodies which gave the viewer a fairytale feeling as if he was in Disneys Fantasia. This allusion of the mural constantly preserved the spir...

Definition of Asymptotic Variance in Statistical Analysis

Definition of Asymptotic Variance in Statistical Analysis The definition of the asymptotic variance of an estimator may vary from author to author or situation to situation. One standard definition is given in Greene, p 109, equation (4-39) and is described as sufficient for nearly all applications. The definition for asymptotic variance given is: asy var(t_hat) (1/n) * limn-infinity E[ {t_hat - limn-infinity E[t_hat] }2 ] Introduction to Asymptotic Analysis Asymptotic analysis is a method of describing limiting behavior and has applications across the sciences from applied mathematics to statistical mechanics to computer science.  The term  asymptotic  itself refers to approaching a value or curve arbitrarily closely as some limit is  taken.  In applied mathematics and econometrics,  asymptotic  analysis is employed in the building of numerical mechanisms that will approximate equation solutions. It is a crucial tool in the exploration of the ordinary and partial differential equations that emerge when researchers attempt to model real-world phenomena through applied mathematics. Properties of Estimators In statistics, an estimator is a rule for calculating an estimate of a value or quantity (also known as the estimand) based upon observed data. When studying the properties of estimators that have been obtained, statisticians make a distinction between two particular categories of properties: The small or finite sample properties, which are considered valid no matter the sample sizeAsymptotic properties, which are associated with infinitely larger samples when n  tends to ∞ (infinity). When dealing with finite sample properties, the aim is to study the behavior of the estimator assuming that there are many samples and as a result, many estimators. Under these circumstances, the average of the estimators should provide the necessary information. But when in practice when there is only one sample, asymptotic properties must be established. The aim is then to study the behavior of estimators as n, or the sample population size,  increases. The asymptotic properties an estimator may possess include asymptotic unbiasedness, consistency, and asymptotic efficiency. Asymptotic Efficiency and Asymptotic Variance Many statisticians consider the minimum requirement for determining a useful estimator is for the estimator to be consistent, but given that there are generally several consistent estimators of a parameter, one must give consideration to other properties as well. Asymptotic efficiency is another property worth consideration in the evaluation of estimators. The property of asymptotic efficiency targets the asymptotic variance of the estimators. Though there are many definitions, asymptotic variance can be defined as the variance, or how far the set of numbers is spread out, of the limit distribution of the estimator. More Learning Resources Related to Asymptotic Variance To learn more about asymptotic variance, be sure to check the following articles about terms related to asymptotic variance: AsymptoticAsymptotic NormalityAsymptotically EquivalentAsymptotically Unbiased

Capital investment appraisal within an organisation looks at the Essay

Capital investment appraisal within an organisation looks at the acquisition of fixed assets so as to generate wealth for the organisation - Essay Example Capital investment appraisal, which is also called capital budgeting, is the process to use funds to acquire operational assets (Khamees et al. 2010). These investment decisions obtain their guidance and source from the outcomes or results, which are provided by the source of capital investment appraisal. If the outcomes of capital investment appraisal are positive and encouraging, and these outcomes show that a particular investment, if taken, would bring wealth and additional inflows to the organisation, then investment or fund managers do not delay or waste a single minute to give a green signal for the investment project. Additionally, that investment project must ensure that after a certain number of years, the investment project would bring some additional inflows which would be more than the initial cost invested into that investment project. Four investment techniques are the different methods: Payback period, discounted payback period, net present value (NPV) and internal ra te of return (IRR). These four investment techniques are the basic tools used by the investment managers to carry out the process of investment appraisal. Each investment technique is different and is used differently by the fund or investment managers. Payback period is simply takes into account the number of years. Payback period informs that how many years a particular investment project would take to recover the initial cost of investment. The discounted payback period is a bit different to payback period. The discounted payback period uses a firm’s cost of capital for the purpose of evaluating the expected future cash flows from an investment project.... The discounted payback period uses a firm’s cost of capital for the purpose of evaluating the expected future cash flows from an investment project. In the discounted payback period, without using the cost of capital, the application of discounted payback period would not be possible and applicable for the purpose of conducting an investment appraisal. Net present value (NPV) is considered to be a more effective and reliable investment appraisal tool in comparison with other tools of investment appraisal. The main reason for its more recognition and more application among the different fund and investment managers is that net present value heavily relies on the technique of time-value of money concepts. The internal rate of return (IRR) is a discount rate. This discount rate is used by many fund and investment managers for the purpose of evaluating the future cash inflows. The only and most important function of the internal rate of return is to give a figure of cost of capita l; and this figure is used and applied on the different available cash flows to determine their present value. Capital Investment Appraisal For the financial and investment managers, the activity of capital investment appraisal brings a huge amount of responsibility for them. The capital investment appraisal requires purchasing a long term asset with a life of many years. This means, in case that fixed asset is purchased, the company becomes locked in for the duration of the asset’s life. Also, since the purchase of a fixed asset would directly increase the current level of business operations, and the contribution of the fixed asset would also increase in the activities of sales, costs and so on, it becomes necessary for the investment and fund

Bones Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bones - Essay Example 436–443). Tendons are flexible fibrous connective tissues connecting muscles and bones. Fundamentally, they facilitate the movement of people as they act as intermediaries between muscles and bones, and are vulnerable to tearing caused by prolonged or repetitive movement of muscles, excessive muscle contraction or overstretching (Benjamin et al., 2006). They are located in areas that are characterised by bone intersection such as knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows, and feet. Ligaments are connecting tissues that attach one bone to another or muscles to other structures in the body. Even though both ligaments and tendons can withstand tension, ligaments connect bones to other bones and help in stabilizing the joints around them. They are by long and stringy collagen fibres that create bands of tough fibrous connective tissues mostly found where ends of bones intersect. They can be stretched and lengthened with caution to avoid sprains resulting from direct or indirect trauma that pre-disposition a joint (Benjamin et al., 2006). It may be easy to confuse tendons, ligaments and bursae, but these three structures represent adipose and connective tissues. Therefore, it is important to note that bursae act as an adipose tissue that protects the connective tissues whose differences have been highlighted. Benjamin, M, Toumi, H.,  Ralphs, J.,  Bydder,G., Best, T.,   and   Milz, S. (2006), Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: Attachment sites (‘entheses’) in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load. Journal of Anatomy, 208(4): 471–490. doi:  Ã‚  10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x Shaw, M,. Santer, M., Watson, A., and Benjamin, M. (2007). Adipose tissue at entheses: the innervation and cell composition of the retromalleolar fat pad associated with the rat Achilles tendon.  Journal of Anatomy. 211(4): 436–443.

Five Functions of Management: Advantages and Disadvantages

Five Functions of Management: Advantages and Disadvantages Henri Fayol is widely acknowledged as the earliest pioneer and advocate of the task of management Parker and Ritson, 2005 His management theories were first proposed in the early 1900s. Despite many criticisms, Fayols theories still form the basis of management practices and teachings in the 21st century. Taking some articles for reference, this essay will mainly analyse the advantages and disadvantages of Fayols concept of five functions of management in modern enterprises by some examples. There are about three main parts in this essay beginning with the introduction. And in the main body of this article, based on some academic researches, there are about seven parts discussing the advantages and disadvantages of Fayols concept of five functions of management. A conclusion will be made at last. There is no doubt that Fayol is best known for a three-fold contribution to management theory. Among his contributions, the concept of five functions of management is worth discussing all the time. Fayol identified five key functions of management and these functions of managerial activity are: forecasting and planning, organizing, coordination, command and control. According to Fayol, forecasting involves analyzing the future and drawing a plan of action (Pugh ad Hichson, 2007). And as for organizing, Fayol believed that an organizations structure was important, as it can facilitate the optimum conduct of its business activities (Pugh and Hichson, 2007). According to Pugh and Hichson (2007), in his original writing, Fayol used the term command to illustrate a managers responsibility to lead and direct employees towards the achievement of organizational goals and strategies. About the function of coordination, Fayol made a suggestion that managers should bind together, unify and harm onize all the organizations activities and efforts. In contemporary management practice, this can be explained into that the managers should be responsible for making sure that all the organizational business activities are coordinated to make the employees can unify together within one department or among different departments. The last not the least function of management is control. Fayol recognized the importance of control within an organization and support that it ensures everything occurs in conformity with established rules and expressed command. In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, McLean (2011) firstly introduced the contents of the five functions of management and stated that in contemporary society, there are some advantages of these functions to development of the enterprises. First, McLean (2011) stated that with the development of globalized knowledge economy, the abilities of forecasting and planning can gain success in the competition. Second, organizing can ask the managers to carry out an appropriate infrastructure, which will optimize the organizations system, resources, procedures, processes and services and enable knowledge to be disseminated to those who need it, when they need it. Third, McLean (2011) also stated that control is one of the most important responsibilities of a manager and under the control of the managers. Under control of the managers, the policies and strategies can be implemented according to plan and within budget, set timescales and allocated resources. Fourth, under the func tion of command, the managers can develop a thorough knowledge of their employees, which can generate a positive psychological contract that engages employees with their jobs and the organization. Whats more, Fayols managerial functions are frequently cited as the inspiration for the contemporary practice of dividing managerial activity (and management textbooks) into the functions of planning, leading, organizing and controlling (Davidson and Griffin, 2000; Lewis, Goodmand and Fandt ,1995). As for the organizing, Fayol believed that an organizations structure was important, as it facilitated the optimum conduct of its business. Whether there are advantages of this concept or not remains an open question, In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, Miss Jacqueline McLean stated that in contemporary society, organizing can ask the managers to carry out an appropriate infrastructure, which will optimise the organizations system, resources, procedures, processes and services and enable knowledge to be disseminated to those who need it, when they need it. Meanwhile, organizing also can integrate all kinds of resources of the companies, including human resources, financial and material resources. So there are some advantages about the concept. And this concept is also influencing the structure of the companies and most of organizations pay more attention to the building of the organizational structure. The KFCà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’one of the most famous and important fast food chain restaurants, is always paying its attention to the building of the structure all the time. In 2004, with the AIV spreading quickly in Asia, most of the KFC consumers quitted the line of waiting for KFC, never eating chicken. Especially in Vietnam, the most AIV-hit country, KFC business was confronted with a crisis. But KFC then changed its organizational structure, replacing the Fried Chicken with Fried Fish. So, finally it regained a big success. Under the guidance of Fayols concept about the organizing, many organizations know about the importance of the structure and pay attention to building their organizational chart and thus gain success. In fact, the building of the organizational structure should fit the development of the organization. As the saying goes, preparedness ensures success and unpreparedness spells failure. So does the development of one organization. According to Fayol, forecasting involves analysis of the future and drawing up a plan of action. About this Fayols concept, some authors viewed that there are some advantages. In the article of Fayol-standing the test of time, McLean (2011) stated that with the development of globalized knowledge economy, the abilities of forecasting and planning can gain success in the competition. In the article of The foundation of Henri Fayols administrative theory, Mr. Wren, Mr. Bedeeian and Mr. Breeze stated that the most important of the means which one must use to ensure business success was planning. To create a business, the founders need capital manpower and time and should have outlets for the products or service. To forecast these needs and providing for them is the main responsible of the managers. So Fayols concept about planning has its own advantages. And i t also improves the development of the companies in contemporary times. Due to the loss of electronic mail, Morgan Stanley paid out more than billions of dollars. But this event is just one tip of the iceberg of the suffering a great number of cost which is caused by the inappropriate information management. Confronted with this problem, British Airway made plan and forecasting and declared its commercial goal: to automate more and more function and try their best to develop customers self-help service system , such as electronic ticket, and even that customers can printed their tickets in their own home. This strategy made British Airway protocol the development lifeline of the companies designedly. Although there are lots of advantages of Fayols concept of the five functions of management, there are some disadvantages of them. As for the forecasting and planning, if a business made a good planning, it will get a great success. If not, there will be a big failure, just as the saying goes Changes always go beyond plans. As McLean (2011) stated in the article of Fayol-standing the test of time that the globalised knowledge economy and the presence of ubiquitous change and competition make forecasting, planning and strategising key managerial activities, forecasting and planning are at the same time the main cause of an organization failure. HP, a big technological products supplier of the world, is always encouraging its employees to go forward to their goals, which are planned by the organization. According to HP official Website, in 2010à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’in accordance with its plan, HP purchased Palm company with the Web-based Operating System to get itself to a higher level. But as a result, the new product with the WebOS could not compete with ipad and was not popular with the consumers. In 2011, HP declared to cease the research of WebOS. So to purchase Palm with a whole $1.2 Billion is really not a wise choice. Many other organizations in the world are also always following the rules of forecasting and planning concept in Fayols management theory, but only a good plan is far from enough in contemporary competitive context. The other disadvantage comes from the function of command and control in Fayols theory. According to Wren, Bedeian and Breeze (2002), the command made by the higher authority and which, be it direct or through successive levels in the organization, should reach all parts of the organization, and the responses should return in the reverse sense, either directly or through the levels, to the central authority. Thus an organization can operate smoothly. But there are also counterviews, who consider that the excessive command and control will harm personal satisfaction and their self-respect. In the article of Fayols 14 principles of management then and now: a framework for managing todays organizations, Rodrigues stated that if the managers can separate their managerial work from the actual work clearly, they can have energy to focus on the target of the development of their own enterprises and deal with the public relations outside the companies. In the article Henri Fayol as strategie s: a nineteenth century corporate turnaround, Wren stated that due to the hierarchy, the managers can conduct the enterprise toward its objective. The branches of Nokia in China adhere to the principle of the former, the strict command and control. Under this circumstance, the managers cannot handle the managerial work since they have to help employees to deal with lots of trivial problems. After discussion, they changed the operation strategies and set up the system of hierarchical transmission of orders, in which the employees in the lower class should report their work to his/her own managers. Whats more, as McLean (2011) stated, although Fayol had a great contribution to management theory, he has been accused of the romanticism of management and presented an almost unrealizable approach to management theorisation. He gave a clear definition to each of the functions of his management theory and some principles to carry out them, but in concrete circumstances, some of them can not be realized. As Pryor and Taneja (2010) stated that in practically Mintzberg vehemently disagreed when he went on to say that if you observe managers at work you will find what they do is quite different. According to Lamond, Fayol gave us management as we would like it to be and Mintzberg gave us management as it is (Pryor and Taneja, 2010). Therefore, today many managers favour the important role of practice and experience. They think that practice and experience are the only way to get a management qualification. In conclusion, Henri Fayol, as a founding father of what has become known as the administration school of management, made some contributions to the management theories. This essay mainly aimed to discuss some statement about Henri Fayols contributions to management today and criticism of any of his contributions under the topic of Discussion on Advantages and Disadvantages of Fayols Concept of Five Functions of Management in Modern Enterprises and then to learn about the influence of Fayols management theories to the management practices and teachings in the 21st century. It focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of forecasting and planning, the disadvantages of excessive command and control and the impracticability of the theory in the main body by taking some articles for reference. All in all, Fayols theories are valuable and relevant for organizational leaders on the one hand and debatable on the other hand.

Case Study Crescent Pure Essay

Due to Crescent being Portland Drake Beverages’ (PDB) first entry into the U.S. sport/energy beverage market, there are some issues that PDB should consider with regard to Crescent’s impending launch. These issues consist of determining what customers want, being discussion-worthy and being transparent. Before launching Crescent it is essential to make sure that there is a place for Crescent in the market. Sarah Ryan, Vice President of Marketing for PDB, is doing this by trying to specify whether Crescent fits in the market better as an energy drink, a sport drink or a healthy organic beverage. Being discussion-worthy is another important issue to consider because it is important to make sure Crescent’s product stands out against the various other energy/sport beverage companies that are coming out with their own products. By captivating your consumers with something discussion-worthy, you’ll foster organic word-of-mouth about your brand. Being transparent is also a vital issue to consider because consumers have so many options on where to spend their money for sport/energy drinks. By being transparent and showing consumers exactly where their money is going, Crescent’s product will attract consumers. Letting consumers know where Crescent’s products are coming from and why they are priced they way they are gives power to the consumer, and helps them feel confident about their purchases. The factors that should influence the position of Crescent are competitors, market segmentation and market size. The market segmentation for sport drinks and energy drinks are distinguished through levels of hydration provided, energy provided, nutrition provided and favorable taste provided. Most energy drinks have higher energy, lower nutrition, lower hydration and  lower favorable taste compared to sports drinks. Additionally, the largest group of energy drink consumers were males between the ages of 18-34. Also parents of children were more likely to consume energy drinks and the highest volume of drinks consumed was by respondents with a household income below $25,000 per year. For sport drinks, roughly half of men consumed them, while only a third of women did. Furthermore, although 40% of men found sports drinks refreshing, only 27% of females did. Sports drinks appealed to younger consumers, 62% of those between the ages of 18 to 24. Crescent’s best target is males a nd females between the ages of 18-35. PDB must decide whether or not to position Crescent as an energy drink, a sport drink, or a healthy organic beverage. The advantages for positioning Crescent as an energy drink is that the market size for energy drinks has grown 40% between 2010 and 2012. Energy drinks were estimated to be $8.5 billion in the United States in 2013; forecasts projected that figure to reach $13.5 billion by 2015. Another advantage is that Crescent is a beverage that consists of organic ingredients that are a healthier option than most energy drinks. This is an advantage because sales of energy drinks with lower levels of caffeine and purer ingredients are rising due to consumer demand for healthier food and beverage choices. A disadvantage for positioning Crescent as an energy drink is that many potential consumers view energy drinks as unhealthy and might not see past that when PDB launches their new Crescent energy drink. Due to news stories highlighting the alleged health risks from energy drinks, 32% of consumers over 18 indicated they drank an energy drink in the last six months, 11% of who were drinking fewer energy drinks than they had a year earlier. The advantages of positioning Crescent as a sport drink is that the market size is also increasing. The market increased 9% between 2007 and 2012. In 2012, sports drinks reached $6.3 billion in the United States and are expected to grow to $9.58 billion by 2017. Another advantage of positioning Crescent as a sports drink is that diet and low-sugar beverages, which did not exist before 2009, had grown by 33% between 2010 and 2012. The market size for diet and low-sugar sports drinks is expected to increase from $1.4 billion in 2012 to $2.97 billion in 2017. This is perfect for PDB because  the Crescent beverage is based on being a diet, low-sugar, and overall healthy option. The disadvantage of PDB positioning Crescent as a sports drink is the concern regarding rising childhood obesity rates resulting in government-mandated guidelines to remove high-calorie sugary drinks and snacks, including sports drinks, from school vending machines. This could be a negative impact on the amount of sports drinks young consumers buy, who make up a large portion of the sports drinks that are consumed. The advantages of positioning Crescent as a healthy organic beverage is due to consumers currently moving towards healthier food and beverage options, as mentioned earlier. It is a market that is currently growing and will continue to grow. The disadvantage of positioning Crescent as a healthy organic beverage is that it lacks the energy that is provided by other energy drinks due to its use of organic ingredients. A focus group feedback found that some young consumers noted that Crescent had less energy than they had hoped. The positioning strategy that I would select would be a healthy organic beverage. It is important to find what draws you apart from the competition and then advertise based on that. The target market that Crescent wants to attract are people who are health conscious and consumers who buy sugary energy and sport drinks aren’t going to be as health conscious. Other implications that this will have for other elements of the marketing mix is that PDB could potentially raise the price for a Crescent beverage because some consumers from the focus group questioned PDB’s ability to deliver quality organic ingredients at $2.75, when most healthy organic beverages are above $3.00. Another implication this will have for other elements of the marketing mix is where this product is going to be sold. If Crescent is being sold as a healthy organic beverage then it must be sold in a store that sells other healthy and organic products in order to provide for the right target market. Lastly, Crescent will have to be advertised as a healthy organic beverage through packaging, commercials and other forms of advertisement showing that this product is healthy and only organic ingredients are used to make it.

Niccolo Machiavelli s The Prince - 1063 Words

Niccolà ² Machiavelli â€Å"The Prince†. Using bad or immoral methods to achieve something good by using them. At least once in everyone’s life, at one point they’ve made a dishonest decision. Some of us have even tried to explain our actions by bending the truth. Being dishonest is not the best, but at times it is the best answer. It may not seem to be the faithful thing to do, but the outcome will always be judged as honorable. It doesn’t matter how people reach what they want as long as the outcome is what they had hoped. The end goal doesn’t necessarily have to be good and noble. It is acceptable to go to any extent to obtain something that is for a good cause. Many people believe â€Å"the end justifies the means† is not valid unless the intentions are good and noble but sometimes people need to do something unacceptable in order to end up with a positive outcome. For example, let’s say there’s a family of four who lives out in the streets and don’t have anywhere to go. The children are dying of hunger and the family does not have a single dime to buy something to eat. The father then decides to steal something from the market to feed his children. What the father did wasn’t necessarily correct, but was necessary in order to meet his family’s needs. The father did something that is deemed wrong in our society but had a positive outcome not just for himself but for his family. Some might say the man’s actions were justified by pointing out the positive outcome. Now suppose theShow MoreRelatedNiccolo Machiavelli s The Prince1719 Words   |  7 PagesMachiavelli’s, The Prince, a book wr itten by Niccolà ² Machiavelli, is a read that most people wouldn’t prefer to read as a first option but in defense to Niccolo, it brings out many themes such as Goodwill and Hatred, Free will, and Human Nature. â€Å"It is known from his personal correspondence that The Prince was written during 1513, the year after the Medici took control of Florence, and a few months after Machiavelli s arrest, torture, and banishment by the Medici regime† (Bio.com). The novel wasRead MoreNiccolo Machiavelli s The Prince892 Words   |  4 PagesNiccolà ² Machiavelli wrote The Prince with the sole purpose of impressing the Medici family and getting on the good side of the new ruler of Florence, Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici. By writing this â€Å"handbook to ruling,† Machiavelli hoped to sway the Medici to accept him as an ally and possible political advisor. 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Exploration Of Myself As A Learner - 2017 Words

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However, while I was still there, Strath Haven used the â€Å"Int egrated Math Program,† which purports to foster creative and critical thinking because it â€Å"calls on students to experiment with examples, look for and articulate patterns, and make, test, and prove conjectures† (IMP website). Instead, IMP made me feel lost, and I yearned for the example-based approach used by my middle school teachers. I was unsurprised when the test in Brain-Based Strategies identified me as a â€Å"strong left brain.† This definitely reminded me of my experiences with IMP because, according toShow MoreRelatedThe Learning Styles Of The Work Produced By Kolb, Peter Honey And Alan Mumford Developed And Identified Four864 Words   |  4 PagesAs humans, we differ in many ways and our personalities allow us to react and deal with situations as accordingly. 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The Philosophies of John Stuart Mill as a Guide for the...

The Philosophies of John Stuart Mill as a Guide for the World Dr. Pests comments: This students term paper is a model of how to apply the philosophical concepts of a previous century to our present society. She showed how the ideas of John Stuart Mill can be used by intelligent people to construct a society with more opportunities for women and to insure respect for intellectual freedom. As the world moves into the twenty-first century, it faces many problems. War, disease, over-population, and starvation are examples of problems that have yet to be solved. However, progress has been made in many areas that aid in the reduction of human misery. Diseases, through research and scientific study, are better understood—many that†¦show more content†¦If people around the world would adopt the philosophy of John Stuart Mill, the world might become a more intelligent, and therefore tolerant, place in which to live. 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Role Theory Free Essays

string(138) " roles because they apply to a wide range of situations and because they tend to alter the meaning and taking up of other types of roles\." Understanding Intimate Partner Violence through Role Theory: A Concept Paper Introducing Role Theory Role theory is a sociological framework that has been used to explain sets of relational patterns between people across varying contexts. It seeks to explain one of the most important characteristics of human social behavior – the fact that how people act, behave and speak are not separate, unique, disconnected but rather, are reflective of certain patterns and arrangements that depend on the social context and the actors in these contexts (Mangus, 1957; Biddle, 1986). To illustrate, within the context of an intimate relationship such as marriage, violence between partners can be tied to the particular patterns and arrangements of acting, behaving and speaking between partners – such as earning money, rearing children, taking care of the home and initiating sexual relations. We will write a custom essay sample on Role Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although several versions of the theory have been explicated by scholars, there appears to be agreement that role theory is mainly about three interrelated concepts: (1) patterned and characteristic social behaviors, (2) parts or identities as assumed by social participants, and (3) scripts or expectations for behavior that are understood and followed by actors in a particular social context (Biddle, 1986). For instance, adopting a role theory perspective to understanding intimate partner violence necessitates looking at the patterned and characteristic social behaviors of intimate partners in a relationship, the parts or identities that each partner plays in the relationship, and the scripts or expectations that are interpreted and adhered to by the partners in a particular relational context, specifically in situations of violent encounters. Furthermore, the theory also allows for an understanding of the relationships among the individual, collective and structural levels of society (Turner, 2001), as it deals with the organization and connection of social behavior between the micro, macro and intermediate levels of society. Thus, within role theory, an analysis of intimate partner violence entails looking into the individual behaviors of partners in a violent relationship and tracing the linkages of these behaviors to the social structures that exist in a particular society. Defining Roles Central to role theory is the concept of role. Several definitions have been ascribed to the concept of role in the literature. On a general level, the concept of role includes a description of behaviors, characteristics, norms and values held by a person (Thomas Biddle, 1966). Another definition identifies role as a cluster of behaviors and attitudes that are understood as belonging together, such that a person is considered as acting consistently when enacting the various components of a single role and variably when he or she fails to do so (Turner, 2001). For instance, the traditional masculine role can be characterized as aggressive, ambitious, dominant, independent and persistent whereas the traditional feminine role can be illustrated as agreeable, courteous, sympathetic, trusting, understanding and warm (Ellington Marshall, 1997). As such, a partner who plays the masculine role must enact behaviors and attitudes that are typical of this role, such as being aggressive, dominant, independent and agentic. For this partner cast in the masculine role, to be passive, dependent and agreeable implies incompatibility with the traditional masculine role. Specifically, a role may refer to behavior that is expected of people who occupy particular social categories such as statuses (or positions) in both formal and informal systems (Montgomery, 1998 as cited in Lynch, 2007; Biddle Thomas, 1979 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Roles may also be reflective of the cultural values and norms in a particular society (Zurcher, 1983 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Roles may also be conceptualized as a resource that social actors try to utilize to achieve certain social goals (Callero, 1994). This assumption suggests two things: (1) that human agency is facilitated and expressed through the use of roles as resources, and (2) that roles are employed as tools in the establishment of social structures (Baker Faulkner, 1991 as cited in Callero, 1994). Most social roles exist in pairs or sets. Thus, roles can be conceptualized as related through distinctive role relationships (Mangus, 1957). As such, there could be no husband role without a wife role and no parent role without a child role. In the context of intimate violence, there exists the perpetrator-victim role set. As organized patterns of social behavior, roles are of several types (Mangus, 1957). Roles may be ascribed to the individual, imposed upon an individual or achieved by the individual (Mangus, 1957). Sex and gender roles are ascribed to or imposed upon an individual (Mangus, 1957). For instance, one has to assume the masculine role if one is male or the feminine role if one is born female. On the other hand, one’s roles in groups and occupational systems, such as leader, mediator or peacemaker, are achieved roles. Roles may also be understood as generic or specific. Some roles may be pervasive, persistent, generalized and highly important to a person’s life while other roles may be limited, subordinate, temporary, isolated and unimportant to a person’s life (Mangus, 1957). To illustrate, in a violent intimate relationship, the roles of perpetrator and victim may be the predominant configuration in the relationship. On the other hand, these roles may also be seen as isolated to particular relational contexts and thus understood as subordinate to other roles such as father, mother, breadwinner and caretaker. Roles may also be highly abstract or they may be concrete (Mangus, 1957). Abstract roles emerge from social systems of statuses and are expressed as generalized moral standards (Mangus, 1957). Examples of abstract roles are evident in universal expectations of honesty and justice. Status roles include rights and duties that emanate from a given position or office (Mangus, 1957). Illustrations of status roles can be seen in the entitlements and obligations that are given to persons of authority, such as managers, leaders or decision-makers. Turner (2001) also identified four broad types of roles: (1) basic roles, (2) position or status roles, (3) functional group roles, and (4) value roles. Basic roles refer to roles that are associated with gender, age and social class (Banton, 1965 as cited in Turner, 2001). These are considered basic roles because they apply to a wide range of situations and because they tend to alter the meaning and taking up of other types of roles. You read "Role Theory" in category "Papers" The second type of roles, position or status roles, correspond to positions in organizations or formally organized groups (Turner, 2001). Occupational and family roles may be regarded as examples of position or status roles. Functional group roles are the informal behavior patterns that arise spontaneously as persons take on situational identities during social interactions (Benne Sheats, 1948 as cited in Turner, 2001). Examples of functional group roles are mediator, coordinator, critic, counselor, leader and follower. Finally, value roles are similar to functional group roles in that both types of roles emerge spontaneously from the social interaction. However, value roles tend to be attached to very positively or negatively valued identities (Turner, 2001). In intimate relationships, examples of value roles can be the roles of hero, villain, saint, sinner, perpetrator or victim. After providing an overview of role theory and the concept of roles, we now turn to explain the two major approaches to understanding role theory. Two Main Approaches to Understanding Roles A review of the related literature identified two main approaches to understanding roles: (1) the traditional structural-functional approach and (2) the interactionist approach. In this section, we highlight the characteristics of each approach as well as provide an explanation of the major assumptions within each perspective. We also provide illustrations as to how each approach can help enlighten our understanding of intimate partner relationships. Finally, we discuss the limitations of each approach. Traditional Structural-Functional Approach The structural-functionalist tradition of role theory focuses on how roles, as fixed components of complex social structures, cultures or social systems, influence the behavior of people (Lynch, 2007). Two related strands of role theory are embedded within this approach – structural role theory and functional role theory. Structural role theory concentrates on social structures, which are understood as stable organizations of sets of persons (called â€Å"social positions† or â€Å"statuses†) who share the same patterned and characteristics behaviors (roles) that are in relation to others sets of persons in the structure (Biddle, 1986). This particular strand of traditional role theory refers to parts of organized groups as â€Å"status† and to the fixed behaviors expected of persons occupying a status as â€Å"roles† Stryker, 2001). Thus, roles may be conceptualized as the dynamic aspect of statuses or social positions, with roles corresponding to rights and duties attached to statuses or social positions (Stryker, 2001). Within this strand, roles are understood as existing prior to the social interaction of people who occupy the statuses or soci al positions, as roles originate from the accumulated experiences of past individuals who have previously occupied a status or social position (Stryker, 2001). The second strand of traditional role theory – functionalist role theory – highlights the characteristic behaviors of persons who occupy social positions within a stable social system (Biddle, 1986). Within this strand, roles are conceptualized as the shared and normative expectations that prescribe and explain these characteristic behaviors (Biddle, 1986). Functional role theorists view the enactment of roles as something that is learned through an understanding of social norms in a society as well as something that accomplishes certain functions in social systems (Biddle, 1986). Both structural and functional strands of the traditional approach to role theory emphasize social structures as antedating roles, such that roles are seen as imposed on the individual (Turner, 2001). Thus, within this approach, the roles of perpetrator and victim can be understood as emanating from social structures such as gender. For instance, the masculine role has often been identified with being the dominant partner, the primary breadwinner, the decision-maker and the enforcer of rules in the household. On the other hand, the feminine role has often been linked with being the subordinate partner, the caretaker of the home and the supporter of the husband and children. Such role configurations may put partner occupying the masculine role at an advantage while setting the partner playing the feminine role at a disadvantage, thus making them vulnerable to becoming perpetrators and victims of intimate violence (Mihalic Elliot, 1997). Furthermore, this approach also points to socialization as the process by which persons learn to take on and perform particular roles in society (Stryker, 2002). Thus, when persons in social relationships conform to the expectations that are attached to statuses and supported by social norms, they tend to gain approval from other people who occupy related statuses and adhere to similar norms; such approval then reinforces the learning and enactment of roles (Stryker, 2002). Research has shown that typical school practices tend to create children’s identities as boy and girls (Martin, 1998 as cited in Fox Murry, 2000). In particular, findings showed that teachers tend to treat boys’ voices as different from girls’ voices, such that the former were allowed to be louder and more as compared to the latter. Presumably, such gender role socialization contributes to the accrual of privileges to the masculine role and the corresponding accrual of disadvantages to the feminine role. In addition, both strands of the traditional structural-functional approach to role theory agree on the assumption that society, social systems and social structures shape individual behaviors (Brookes, Davidson, Daly Halcomb, 2007). Analysis within this approach also starts from an examination of the social structure (Biddle, 1986). As such, within this approach, an examination of intimate partner violence will proceed from an investigation of the social systems and social structures that influence violent behaviors between partners in an intimate relationship. Furthermore, such an analysis will look into the cultural norms and values that sustain the social systems and social structures implicated in the phenomenon of intimate partner violence. However, several limitations of this approach have been raised in the related literature. According to Lynch (2007), this approach paints roles as relatively inflexible structures that are difficult to combine. Furthermore, by focusing on social structures, the traditional approach to role theory fails to take into account the mental, experiential dimension of role enactment (Lynch, 2007), thus regarding persons as automatons who take on roles mechanically. As such, this approach tends to be limited in its view of intimate partner violence as mechanically carried out by individual persons according to their status or position in the social structure, without taking into account the variability and diversity of experiences related to this phenomenon. Also, as it has difficulty accounting for individual level negotiations where actors may switch or combine roles, this approach also treats the variability and flexibility of roles as problematic (Lynch, 2007). Thus, traditional role theory is unable to address issues elated with non-conformity, social change and social systems that are not well-formed (Biddle, 1986). For instance, given instances of intimate partner violence where both partners inflict violence upon one another, traditional role theory proves to be limited in its explanation of intimate violence as emanating from the social structure. Within this approach, role changes such as when the perpetrator becomes the victim and the victim becomes the perpetrator become problematic and difficult to explain. The traditional structural-functional approach to role theory has also been criticized as advancing a one-sided view of society, with its emphasis on consensus, cooperation and continuity in social life along with its seeming blindness to disagreement, conflict and change (Stryker, 2001). Finally, scholars have also criticized the traditional approach to role theory as rationalizing and reinforcing the existing social order (Stryker, 2001). Interactionist Approach The interactionist approach to role theory arose from the symbolic interactionism perspective in sociology and as such gives importance to the roles of individual actors, the development of roles through social interaction, and the processes through which social actors understand and interpret their own and other people’s behavior (Biddle, 1986). Thus, this approach focuses on how roles emerge in social interactions and how individuals are able to influence behavioral expectations through social negotiation (Lynch, 2007). Within this approach, a role is conceptualized as neither fixed nor prescribed, but rather, something that is continuously negotiated by persons in social interaction (Mead, 1934 as cited in Lynch, 2007; Blumer, 1969 as cited in Lynch, 2007). Using this approach to understand intimate partner violence therefore necessitates looking at how partners in a violent relationship interact with one another as well as how they, negotiate, take on, impose or reject specific roles. In contrast to the traditional approach to role theory which highlights social systems and social structures, the interactionist approach emphasizes social processes such as communication, interpretation and negotiation (Lynch, 2007). Theorizing within this approach assumes that the relationship between personal, behavioral and social variables is reciprocal (Plummer, 1991 as cited in Lynch, 2007). As such, the interactionist role theory approach to xamining intimate partner violence will tend to focus on how partners communicate, interpret and negotiate particular issues in their relationship. As opposed to the traditional approach to role theory that posits the unidirectional influence of social structure on individual action, the interactionist approach opens up the possibility that personal and behavioral variables may influence social structural variables. For interactionist theorists, social actors interpret and enact their own roles by imagining the roles of others actors in t he social interaction (Turner, 2001). Thus, far from being automatons who take on roles mechanically, people are viewed as interpreting, negotiating and shaping their own roles to be able to interact effectively with other people who take on related roles (Turner, 2001). In this approach, analysis starts from an examination of the patterns of social interactions among individuals and groups of individuals (Turner, 2001). As such, research on intimate partner violence using this approach will look at the interpretative, negotiated and dynamic nature of violent interactions between partners. Some challenges to the interactionist approach to role theory have also been raised. One of these challenges criticized the interactionist approach for failing to take into account the influence of social institutions and structural forces on the role enactment process (Lynch, 2007). Thus, little attention is given to the structural constraints that impinge on roles (Biddle, 1986). To illustrate, although intimate partner violence can be analyzed by studying the social interactions where violence occurs, it is also important to trace the occurrence of intimate violence to social structures that impose and influence the roles that people enact. In addition, as the interactionist approach tends to focus on specific instances of social interactions, interactionist theorists sometimes fail to discuss the contextual limits of their assumptions (Biddle, 1986). Also, while the approach acknowledges the reciprocal relationship between personal, behavioral and social variables, it still fails to explain how these relationships feedback and affect succeeding role enactments (Lynch, 2007). Summary of Limitations of Two Main Approaches to Role Theory In his work on proposing an integration between role theory and positioning theory, Henriksen (2008) cited important limitations of the two main approaches to role theory. These limitations represent a summary of the difficulties that are encountered when using the traditional structural-functional approach and the interactionist approach to understanding social phenomena such as intimate partner violence. On the one hand, the traditional structural-functional approach seems to ignore individual action and its influence on social structure (Henriksen, 2008). Furthermore, a structural-functional approach to role theory also appears to be limited in examining the finer grains of social interaction (Harre van Langenhove, 1999 as cited in Henriksen, 2008; Harre Moghaddam, 2003 as cited in Henriksen, 2008). On the other hand, the interactionist approach appears to focus on social interactions, without taking into account the influence of social structures on the patterning and stability of such interactions. The interactionist approach has also been criticized for its limited attention to the social span of social interaction (Henriksen, 2008). It is based on these limitations of role theory that we propose an integration of role theory with positioning theory, in view of providing a better understanding of intimate partner violence at the structural, interactional and discursive levels. References Biddle, B. J. (1986). Recent developments in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 12, 67-92. Brookes, K. , Davidson, P. M. , Daly, J. , Halcomb, E. J. (2007). Role theory: A framework to investigate the community nurse role in contemporary health care systems. Contemporary Nurse: A Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, 25 (1-2), 146-155. Callero, P. L. (1994). From role-playing to role-using: Understanding role as resource. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57 (3), 228-243. Ellington, J. E. Marshall, L. L. (1997). Gender role perceptions of women in abusive relationships. Sex Roles, 36 (5/6), 349-369. Fox, G. L. Murry, V. M. (2000). Gender and families: Feminist perspectives and family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1160-1172. Henriksen, T. D. (2008). Liquidating roles and crystallizing positioning: Investigating the road between positioning theory and role theory. In F. Moghaddam, R. Harre, and N. Lee (Eds. ), Global conflict resolution through positioning analysis (pp. 41-64). New York: Springer. Lynch, K. D. (2007). Modeling role enactment: Linking role theory and social cognition. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 37 (4), 379-399. Mangus, A. R. (1957). Role theory and marriage counseling. Social Forces, 35 (3), 200-209. Mihalic, S. W. Elliot, D. (1997). A social learning theory model of violence. Journal of Family Violence, 12 (1), 21-47. Stryker, S. (2001). Traditional symbolic interactionism, role theory and structural symbolic interactionism: The Road to Identity Theory. In J. H. Turner (ed. ), Handbook of Sociological Theory (pp. 211-230). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. Thomas, E. J. Biddle, B. J. (1966). Basic concepts for the variables of role phenomena. In B. J. Biddle E. J. Thomas (Eds. ), Role theory: concepts and research (pp. 51-65). New York: John Wiley Sons. Turner, R. H. (2001). Role theory. In J. H. Turner (ed. ), Handbook of Sociological Theory (pp. 233-254). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. How to cite Role Theory, Papers